Culturally congruent strategies for addressing the behavioral needs of urban, African American male adolescents.

Urban, African American male adolescents experience disproportionately higher rates of discipline referrals, suspension, and expulsion, which have been attributed to numerous ecological factors, including cultural conflicts and misunderstandings between the student's culture of origin and school. Efforts to reduce discipline problems must recognize that a reciprocal relationship exists between cultural thought and the expression of certain behaviors. This article helps school counselors understand the logic that guides certain behaviors of urban African American adolescents in order that they may develop culturally congruent intervention strategies that improve discipline out comes.

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Nationwide, African American youngsters account for 16.9% of the student population yet the), constitute 33.4% of all suspensions (Education Trust, 1998). Several experts acknowledge that these figures arise at least in part from racial and gender discrepancies in the dispensation of disciplinary measures that result in more severe consequences for African American males, the proliferation of zero tolerance policies in urban schools that do not abound in suburban communities, interpersonal and cultural misunderstanding, vague and ambiguous policies that can give way to bias, the attitudes of school personnel, and parenting styles that do not foster in children a sense of accountability, (Bireda, 2002; Tucker, 1999). Cartledge and Middleton (1996) argued that the dynamic interaction between race and poverty doubly jeopardizes urban African American adolescents who misbehave and leads teachers to make more negative attributions about infractions committed by African Americans than their other race and gendered peers.

Ecological factors can exacerbate disciplinary actions taken against African American male adolescents in particular. For instance, factors that strain a youngster's ability to conform to school demands and profit from the educational enterprise include the high density, of students in urban schools, students whose culture of origin remains unsynchronized with the demands and expectations prescribed within mainstream educational settings, dilapidated facilities, inadequately prepared teachers, inconsistent school rules and regulations, heightened levels of crime and violence, large unemployment rates, substandard housing, poor health care, persistent poverty, family challenges, substance abuse, and large immigrant populations (Holcomb-McCoy, 1998; Patton & Day-Vines, 2004). All too often, chronic discipline problems lead to academic underachievement and subsequent school dropout.

ADDRESSING DISCIPLINE ISSUES RELATED TO URBAN AFRICAN AMERICAN ADOLESCENTS

Much has been written about the academic underachievement of tar too many African American adolescents (Ogbu, 2003; Tucker, 1999). According to the Education Trust (2003a, 2003b), 61% of African American students performed below basic levels on an eighth-grade measure of math attainment, in comparison to 21% of Caucasian students. Similarly, 7% of African American students earned proficient and advanced scores on this same instrument, compared with 36% of Caucasian students. Sadly, by the end of high school, African American students have math and reading skills that are comparable to White eighth graders (Education Trust, 2003b). Poverty contributes significantly to academic underachievement as well.

According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 2003), 24% of children residing in large metropolitan areas live in poverty and significant proportions of African American youngsters are more heavily concentrated in the highest poverty schools. Regrettably, an inverse relationship exists between the percentage of students eligible for free lunch and student performance. As an example, 56% of poor students in comparison to 25% of middle and affluent youngsters performed below basic levels on an eighth-grade math achievement measure (Education Trust, 2003a). Classes with high-poverty and high-minority enrollments are taught by a disproportionate number of underqualified teachers, which adversely affects learning outcomes. Finally, teachers in these districts spend less time developing reasoning skills and are more apt to rely on worksheets as the primary pedagogical approach. Students who have internalized a pervasive sense of helplessness and hopelessness and who also see no connection between their education and economic mobility remain disengaged in school and mark time until they are eligible to drop out (Tucker, 1999).

According to the NCES (2003), African Americans constitute 14.7% of all dropouts. These figures represent cause for alarm because a significant inverse relationship exists between the amount of education an individual earns and incarceration. The Justice Policy Institute (JPI, 2003) has indicated that 52% of African American males who departed prematurely from school had prison records by their 30s. Current projections indicate that 32% of African American males are likely to serve prison terms. Sadly, once incarcerated, a declining number of inmates avail themselves of educational programs (JPI). Unless African American male adolescents are taught and counseled in some radically different ways, an inordinate number of these young men will remain trapped in a social and economic caste system that severely limits their job prospects, curtails economic prosperity, and impedes overall quality of life (Patton & Day-Vines, 2004).

If education functions as the great equalizer, then educational prospects for African American adolescents must improve. Given the recent demands for systemic, outcome-oriented approaches to the delivery of school counseling programs, it is expected that school counselors will play a pivotal role in eliminating barriers that distance poor and minority children from their more economically privileged and educationally prepared peers (Butler, 2003).

This article opens with a discussion of culture and its impact on the academic performance and behavioral outcomes of urban, African American male adolescents, continues with a profile of African American male adolescents, and closes with a set of culturally congruent strategies for addressing discipline with African American males in the school setting.

Culture

Culture refers to the sum total ways of" living developed by a group of human beings to satisfy biological and psychological needs. Ordinarily, culture includes patterns of thought, behavior, language, customs, institutions, and material objects (Leighton, 1982). Culture also has been defined as the integrated pattern of human behaviors that includes thoughts, communication, action, customs, beliefs, values, and instructions of a racial, ethnic, religious, or social group (Leighton). Different cultural groups have identified different solutions to cultural problems. At times, cultural differences contribute to cultural conflict, particularly when the dominant cultural group imposes a universal imperative that presumes its way of thinking, behaving, and responding to the world is superior (Patton & Day-Vines, 2004).

A mainstream American cultural orientation endorses competition, individualism, a nuclear family constellation, religion as separate from other aspects of life, and mastery over nature, whereas an African American cultural orientation promotes a collective orientation, an extended family network, religion as integral to other aspects of life, and harmony with nature. These cultural attributes reflect modal characteristics that apply to many, though certainly not all, African American adolescents. In fact, manifestations of these cultural traits may be mediated by social class, education, ethnic identification, and affiliation (Gay, 2000).

All too often, the culture of the home and the culture of the school remain at odds leading to cultural discontinuities between African American students and the schools they attend (Patton & Day-Vines, 2004). In fact, this rift between the school and the community has been attributed in large measure to academic failure, high rates of suspension and expulsion, and the overrepresentation of African American males in particular in special education programs and their underrepresentation in gifted education programs (Bireda, 2002; Lee, 1996; Patton, 1998). Moreover, as we discuss later in this article, cultural orientation contributes to the behavioral styles of many urban, African American male adolescents. Counselors who understand the central properties of urban African American culture are better positioned to develop effective interventions that improve discipline outcomes.

In order for school counselors to help change inappropriate school behavior, they must understand the logic governing certain decisions of urban, African American male adolescents. Without this critical piece of information, many well-intentioned interventions will not succeed (Noguera, 2002). With this fact in mind, the next section of this article addresses race-specific information that considers the African American male subculture and ethnic variations in communication patterns. School counselors equipped with this information will have added insight regarding the social and cultural experiences of urban African American adolescents and can use this information to design culturally congruent strategies for promoting prosocial behavior.

African American Male Subculture

The urban, African American male subculture often endorses values that reflect the direct antithesis of healthy psychosocial functioning, such as academic underachievement, aggression, substance abuse, sexual promiscuity, and illegal activity (Corbin & Pruitt, 1999; Lee, 1996; Poussaint & Alexander, 2000). These behaviors represent a reactionary stance toward a society that devalues African American manhood.

Historically, the church and the family have served as strong socializing agents within the African American community, which have deterred youngsters from certain maladaptive behaviors. Regrettably, (a) the declining significance of the family and church, (b) premature parenting by individuals whose own psychosocial needs remain unmet, (c) ineffectual adult male role models resulting from the historical emasculation of many African American males, (d) the impersonal nature of urban environments, (e) economic distress, (f) decreasing access to legitimate opportunities, and (g) dwindling school and community resources jeopardize the psychological well-being of many adolescents, leaving an alarming number of young men to construct their own misguided definitions of African American manhood (Day-Vines & Day-Hairston, 2004; Lee, 1996; Majors & Billson, 1992).

The African American male subculture makes unreasonable and coercive demands that its members exhibit a tough persona and deny personal vulnerability. Any expression of human frailty or a desire to achieve academically and engage in prosocial behaviors may engender ridicule, ostracism, and humiliation from the peer group. In the absence of a psychologically safe environment that permits the expression of personal angst and vulnerability, many adolescents outwardly exude a false bravado yet inwardly harbor feelings of self-doubt, insecurity, fear, and internal strife that lead to self-defeating and sell-destructive behaviors. Tragically, several realities within the African American community may mitigate against seeking counseling services as a mechanism of social support (Day-Vines & Day-Hairston, 2004; Poussaint & Alexander, 2000).

First, African American cultural norms discourage intimate self-disclosures with strangers (Tucker, 1999). A common refrain in many African American households is as such: "What goes on in this house stays in this house"--and, by extension, the peer group. This reticence around disturbing personal experiences may preclude urban, African American male adolescents from obtaining needed relief from personal problems. Second, the family and church may no longer function as viable support mechanisms for a host of urban, African American male adolescents as described above (Poussaint & Alexander, 2000). Third, socialization within the African American male subculture endorses physical and sexual prowess, aggression, suppression of feelings, and ritualized forms of speech, gait, and demeanor, such that deviations from this identity structure are regarded as effeminate behavior (Lee, 1996; Majors & Billson, 1992). Fourth, physical and psychological strength have been extolled as virtues within the African American community to such an extent that when individuals actually encounter personal vulnerability they may equate inner turmoil and psychological distress as indicators of personal weakness (Poussaint & Alexander).

In the absence of appropriate outlets for the expression of personal angst, many adolescents may express suffering by engaging in delinquency, acting-out behaviors, hostility, and physical aggression, all of which can lead to suspension and expulsion in schools. Finally, historical experiences with racism and discrimination may contribute to a cultural mistrust of authority figures such as school personnel (Cartledge & Middleton, 1996).

School counselors can best assist urban, African American male adolescents by providing this information to those who make disciplinary decisions regarding these youngsters, by making appropriate referrals (i.e., counseling versus special education placement), and by equipping these young men with strategies to modify, behavior problems. As a caveat, the manifestation of certain inappropriate behaviors should not exempt students from assuming responsibility for their actions, but should help school counselors identify, an appropriate array of nonpunitive interventions that will result in antirecidivism.

Just as school personnel can misconstrue student cries for help as defiance and insubordination, so too can they misinterpret African American communication styles. The next section of this article addresses ethnic variations in communication patterns.

Communication Styles

Cultural misunderstanding and misattributions between urban African American males and school personnel contribute to the preponderance of discipline referrals, suspensions, and expulsions (Bireda, 2002; Tucker, 1999). African Americans with high levels of ethnic affiliation exhibit a distinctive set of communication styles that does not conform readily to the norms and expectations required in mainstream educational settings. Many urban African American students may communicate with one another and with school personnel in a manner characterized as loud, intense, and confrontational even without having accompanying feelings of anger (Bireda; Cartledge & Middleton, 1996). Onlookers may regard this conduct as volatile and assume that a fight is impending. Contrariwise, many Caucasians rely on more dispassionate, impersonal, and emotionally restrained communication styles. Nothing is inherently wrong with either form of communication, but when interpreted outside a particular cultural context, certain interpersonal styles may be regarded as rude and inappropriate and lead to an increase in disciplinary referrals for urban African American males.

Similarly, when African American youngsters perceive a particular injustice, they may feel entitled to an explanation from authority figures without right of refusal. In comparison, European culture permits the right of refusal to a communication (Cartledge & Middleton, 1996). School counselors can best assist students by helping them recognize the dimensions of each cultural orientation and by giving urban adolescents strategies to behave in accordance with established school norms while respecting the student's culture of origin.

During general discourse, many African Americans engage in very spontaneous and interactive communication styles that do not require turn taking or permission from others to speak (Gay, 2000). This African American cultural feature can cause problems within the classroom setting for African American youngsters, particularly because European cultural dictates mandate sequential versus simultaneous patterns of interaction. Outside an African American cultural context, this stylistic orientation may be regarded as impulsive and can create considerable consternation for individuals unfamiliar with the African American cultural experience. Analogously, repeated reprimands for expressing culturally derived communication styles may irritate African American youngsters, diminish their sense of self worth, lead to escalating discipline problems, and impede academic progress. Elsewhere, other scholars have presented a more elaborated discussion of ethnic variations in communication styles as well as strategies (Bireda, 2002; Cartledge & Middleton, 1996; Tucker, 1999).

Those unfamiliar with ethnic variations in communication patterns may not recognize them as artifacts of culture. As counselors hone their race-specific understanding of urban African American males, they will recognize ethnic variations in communication patterns as artifacts of culture. Cultural congruence results when school counselors can provide students with a repertoire of strategies for responding appropriately to the behavioral demands and expectations of schools. Counselors can enlist their leadership and advocacy skills by helping school personnel understand the central properties of culturally distinct communication patterns in ways that do not penalize urban, African American male adolescents. Consultation and in-service training may represent the most efficient means for the dissemination of this information. In the final section of this article, we enumerate several culturally congruent strategies for addressing the discipline and behavioral needs of urban African American male adolescents.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELORS

Individual and Small-Group Counseling

Individual counseling and small-group counseling represent effective media for promoting healthy prosocial behaviors among urban, African American male adolescents. Such counseling approaches facilitate socioemotional well-being, self-management, empowerment, and academic achievement for youngsters at risk of engaging in maladaptive behaviors (Bradley, 2001; Holcomb-McCoy & Moore-Thomas, 2001; Lee, 1996; Tucker, 1999). Given earlier discussions regarding cultural taboos associated with counseling, the school counselor may need to dispel myths about the counseling process by helping youngsters understand the importance, benefits, and dimensions of counseling (i.e., informed consent). Further, given adolescent concerns about cultural mistrust, school counselors will have to establish relationships that exude warmth, nurturing, trust, and personal respect (Day-Vines, 2000). Even youngsters who exhibit a tough veneer silently crave positive adult attention despite the fact that they have been socialized to act otherwise.

Individual and group counseling may help some youngsters explore their personal feelings related to an internalized sense of disequilibrium within the safety of the counseling relationship. Counselors who understand the cultural dynamics and challenges that urban African American males routinely encounter may be better equipped to help these youngsters. Group counseling permits urban, African American male adolescents to process their individual and collective experience, learn new coping strategies, and benefit from the safety of the group environment. Elsewhere, Lee (1996) has developed useful protocols for facilitating the group process. Most notably, he recommended the involvement of African American adult males as role models.

Mentoring Programs

Mentoring programs represent a form of early intervention that pairs students with respected role models in the community. The nurturing relationship between the student and the mentor can be structured using activities that include individual discussions, tutoring, leisure activities, and cultural awareness sessions, all of which promote personal development and resilience (Lee, 1996). Counselors can work collaboratively with members of the African American community such as the church and social and civic organizations to coordinate these programs (Day-Vines, 2000; Day-Vines, Patton, & Baytops, 2003).

Overcoming the Counselor's Own Inhibitions

Frequently, when the first author conducts cultural competency training programs, Caucasian participants question how they can work effectively with students whose social and cultural experiences differ so markedly from their own. It may be less obligatory that counselors share cultural connections and more important that school counselors demonstrate comfort and willingness to facilitate discussions that address the urban, African American male experience. Moreover, creating a sate space within which African American males can talk openly, honestly, and confidentially about their concerns is paramount. Counselors can be most effective by inviting students to discuss their experiences using some of the following questions to guide their counseling efforts: What is your personal experience as a member of this school or community? What particular challenges do you thee that make it difficult to behave appropriately? How have you managed to function despite the large number of challenges you face? What can school personnel do to help improve situations for you and other students in this school?

This series of questions relies more on an under standing of how to facilitate the counseling process rather then on the shared experience of the counselor and client. Moreover, counselors who may have difficult, relating to the students" lived experience may more readily understand the affective component of a student's concern (Ingrain, n.d.). As an example, a counselor may not relate directly to the relentless teasing, taunting, and peer pressure that African American male adolescents encounter encouraging them to have contempt for prosocial behavior and academic achievement, but that counselor may readily understand feelings associated with fear, intimidation, confusion, uncertainty, and victimization. It is through this invitation to share their concerns in a nonthreatening environment that counselors will come to understand the experience of their clients more precisely and develop warm, trusting relationships with these youngsters. Bibliotherapy operates as another medium for facilitating self-understanding and personal empowerment.

Bibliotherapy

Bibliotherapy functions as a therapeutic counseling technique that can have a transformative impact on the student (Vernon, 2004). During bibliotherapy, student counselees read about literary characters who undergo experiences similar to their own. It is through this shared experience that students identify and connect with the character's situation and come to the realization that others experience similar concerns. For urban African American adolescents who might have been socialized into a culture of inferiority, encouraging them to read about people who have overcome adversity may serve as a significant source of empowerment. As an example, the critically acclaimed book The Pact (Davis, Jenkins, & Hunt, 2002) is a biography of three high school friends from Newark, NJ, who succeed despite the exigencies associated with urban living. Following a brush with the law and after attending a college recruitment seminar for minority, students interested in pre-med, the young men pledge to become medical doctors. The book chronicles their path to the medical profession.

Ingram (n.d.) recommended that counselors integrate sociocultural poetry into the counseling process. Sociocultural poetry operates as a literary medium that explores unique social and cultural factors that impinge on individuals from oppressed groups in an effort to promote self-reflection and problem resolution. Counselors may refer to the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Langston Hughes.

Arguably, rap music represents a form of spoken word poetry to which many youngsters respond favorably (Corbin & Pruitt, 1999). In fact, some preliminary evidence suggests that rap music can improve counseling outcomes for at-risk and delinquent youth (Tyson, 2002). Given the prominence of hip-hop culture in urban settings, rap music may represent a suitable medium for connecting with young people and helping them sort through a number of existential issues. Of course, counselors would need to preview material for appropriate lyric and content.

Social Skill Instruction

Tucker (1999) recommended providing students with self-empowerment strategies as a means of modifying behavior problems, especially because in urban environments, self-management may function as the only viable resource upon which African American adolescents can rely. She further asserted that as school counselors work to eliminate certain behaviors, they must provide students with replacement behaviors through direct social skill instruction. Appropriate intervention goals involve teaching students to (a) develop long- and short-term goals for achieving success, (b) identify strategies for appropriate management of feelings and behavior, (c) consider consequences associated with personal choices, and (d) praise themselves for engaging in appropriate problem-solving strategies (Tucker). Direct social skill instruction helps children learn to cope in situations where they have not had exposure to appropriate behaviors. Bireda (2002) recommended teaching students to strategize for challenging situations by playing the "What would you do if?" game. This exercise engages students in behavioral rehearsals such that they practice responding appropriately to negative stimuli in preparation for real-life situations.

Code Switching

Code switching refers to the ability to move fluidly between cultural contexts such as the culture of origin and the school culture (Celious & Oyserman, 2001). Because the culture of the home and the culture of the school remain diametrically opposed, students may not realize that different sets of expectations govern behavior when students move between cultural contexts. That is, behavior considered appropriate in one cultural context may not be acceptable in other settings. School counselors can best assist students by helping them to recognize the central properties of each culture and by teaching appropriate strategies for functioning in accordance with the cultural norms of each particular group, without devaluing the merits of either culture.

As an example, Malik was a tall, imposing 17-year-old student. He was engaged in an animated discussion with a classmate and started using inappropriate language during a classroom guidance lesson. The counselor pulled Malik aside and explained that sometimes she too cursed; however, when at work, she minimized this type of language. In this instance, the counselor's self-disclosure served as a powerful medium to help teach Malik that different social settings require different types of behavior, to indicate that she was not immune from such language, and to preserve his dignity and self-worth.

Democratic Values

Campbell (2004) suggested that an effective measure to decrease inappropriate behavior in the schools is to promote democratic values by (a) teaching civic responsibility; (b) using service learning to encourage students to work with student government and social service agencies on issues that affect the community; (c) helping students understand and demonstrate fairness, justice, and mutual respect; and (d) teaching students to work collaboratively to reach goals.

INTERPERSONAL APPROACHES WITH URBAN, AFRICAN AMERICAN MALE ADOLESCENTS

SSS Method

Social relationships are highly prized among African American adolescents, and the failure to connect personally with them may erode the counseling relationship (Day-Vines, 2000). Many urban, African American male adolescents are particularly sensitive to criticism and may respond defensively when confronted about their behavior, particularly if they do not share a trusting relationship with authority figures or they feel authority figures have disrespected them. Bireda (2002) recommended the "SSS" method when working with urban African American adolescents; this method refers to a sequence of providing feedback that requires the counselor to stroke, sting, and stroke. That is, as counselors reprimand students, they must first make a positive statement that affirms the integrity of the child, then sting or issue the reprimand, and close by offering another positive statement.

In a continuance of the described example with Malik, the same incident occurred several weeks later. Instead of the counselor overreacting by embarrassing him in front of his classmates, she called Malik aside and used the SSS method to discuss her concerns about his behavior. She said, "Malik, you are such a tall, handsome, intelligent, and articulate young man with a promising future. When others hear you use that language I'm afraid they might not see your charm, good looks, and intelligence. Could you please help me by watching your language in class? I'm sure I'll be able to count on you because you emerge as a leader among your peers." Beaming with pride, Malik returned to class without further incident. This scenario depicts the importance of validating and affirming youngsters to gain their respect and cooperation.

School-Family-Community Partnerships

Several counselor educators have advocated school-family-community partnerships that rely on an integrated system of service delivery that accounts for interactions within and between systems such as the school, family, community, civic organizations, and social service agencies (Bryan & Holcomb-McCoy, 2004; Bryan & Mitchell, 2004). Such an approach enlists representatives from each system to identify problems, devise strategies, and implement programs that can improve educational outcomes for children. Each respective team member possesses a specific and unique area of expertise and makes important contributions toward eliminating problematic issues such as discipline within schools and communities.

Team members might comprise administrators, school counselors, social workers, psychologists, mental health workers, juvenile justice officials, parents, students, and civic and religious leaders. The coordinated efforts of a collective body of concerned individuals in both school and community settings will help reduce problematic behaviors. Tasks of these partnerships may include parent education workshops, home visits, forums that solicit community input, and the planning and implementation of empowerment programs such as those described by Lee (1996). Taken together, these efforts can promote mutual and reciprocal relationships among the school, family, and community and ward off troubling discipline problems. Research has demonstrated that African American students' achievement is higher when their parents and families are involved actively in their education (Ford, Harris, Tyson, & Trotman, 2002). School counselors must provide parents with social capital or the ability, to access resources, information, and services that reinforce and enhance their children's educational experience (Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 2002).

CONCLUSIONS

Many schools regard the academic failure and inappropriate behavior of African American male adolescents as axiomatic; however, there are numerous examples of high-minority, high-poverty, and high-achieving schools (Education Trust, 2003a, 2003b). Districts that have reduced the achievement gap share certain common elements: (a) clear goals related to student performance, (b) challenging curricula that is aligned with standards, (c) supplementary instruction as needed, and (d) well-prepared teachers (Education Trust, 2003a, 2003b). The Education Trust has demonstrated more than 4,000 schools nationwide that have successfully closed the achievement gap. School counselors can use their repertoire of skills to help stem the growing tide of discipline referrals and suspensions for urban, African American male adolescents and help them achieve better educational outcomes. The recommendations cited in this article use as a point of departure the Education Trust's position that skill deficits can be overcome with supplemental instruction such as social skills training.

Urban African American adolescents have experienced a disturbing number of disciplinary infractions that jeopardize their academic achievement and prospects for the future (Bireda, 2002; Lee, 1996; Patton, 1998; Tucker, 1999). Their disproportionate representation among students who get referred for suspension and expulsion and who suffer from academic underachievement, subsequent school dropout, unemployment, and encounters with the penal system provides school counselors with a compelling reason to consider the symbiotic relationship between culture and discipline. Counselors who understand the central features of certain culturally derived behavior and thought patterns can help promote prosocial behaviors among urban African Americans by developing and implementing culturally congruent intervention strategies.

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Norma L. Day-Vines is an associate professor with the College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA.

Beth O. Day-Hairston is an assistant professor with Winston-Salem State University, NC. E-mail: [e-mail]