Cross-age tutoring.

I think it went great today. She is a really good kid. And she was giving a lot more ideas. I think she is getting used to me. It went a lot better than last week.

- Lorein, primary grade student, on her tutoring experiences

As part of a cross-age tutoring project, Lorein meets with a younger student once a week to provide support in reading and writing. Lorein's comments show how she enjoys tutoring and how she has learned to pay close attention to cues from her student so that their time together is mutually enjoyable and productive.

This was not always the case. When I began teaching this group of students (3rd- and 4th-graders) in January 1994 (my first experience teaching elementary school), I was concerned that my students relied on me to make all decisions. If a child did not hear the directions for an assignment, for example, she would approach me for assistance instead of relying on another classmate. I found this environment frustrating and detrimental to my plans for a classroom of independent and cooperative learners.

The children in my class had several teachers that year. The original teacher assigned to this class transferred to another school early in the year and several short-term substitutes were hired. Perhaps the students were unsure of themselves in the wake of so many abrupt departures; they felt the need to please me by meeting some convergent or correct criteria on assignments. While these types of expectations may be common in other classrooms, my classroom was situated in a school with multi-aged classrooms that were organized to take advantage of children's academic and age diversity (Katz, 1990). The experience and knowledge of students in each class varied, and their ages ranged by at least one year (see Katz, 1990).

In order to accommodate this diversity, the majority of my assignments were open-ended so that all students could be successful. While I expected my students to write about the books they were reading, for example, I did not tell them specifically what they had to write. My students found these open-ended directions difficult, however, because they wanted to be sure that they met my expectations. They would often ask me questions, such as: "Do you want me to write about a character?" or "Should I tell about what happened?" When I responded "yes" to all of these questions they seemed more comfortable with their writings, yet continued to seek reassurance.

I knew that my school's organization and philosophy were the result of special efforts by the teachers, principal and parents. In numerous meetings prior to the school's opening, educators and parents conducted open discussions about the school's philosophy for teaching and learning. The major tenets of this philosophy are: 1) children should be supported in developmentally appropriate curriculum, 2) teachers need to build upon students' individual strengths, 3) all students are expected to be successful learners, and 4) the classroom should be built on an ethic of cooperation.

I naively expected my students to reflect the school's philosophy in their learning immediately. After a few days during which students constantly checked with me to make sure that their work was exactly what I wanted and I sent them back to decide for themselves if they had given their best effort, I shared my frustration with a primary (1st and 2nd grade) teacher. She shared her worries about her students' difficulty in learning to read and write. She felt that many of her students had not been read to much and she knew that her efforts to read every day and pursue other literacy activities were probably not sufficient to overcome the deficiency.

As we discussed many possible strategies to support our students' learning, we eventually chose cross-age tutoring. We believed it could foster my students' capacity for learning in a cooperative context and also help build her students' literacy knowledge. I hoped that the cross-age tutoring project would instill in my students some of the responsibility for the younger students' literacy instruction. In addition, I anticipated that my students would learn to work cooperatively with their classroom peers as they decided what kind of reading and writing instruction to provide. The primary grade students would receive additional opportunities to engage in reading and writing, which would enhance their literacy abilities. I follow the evolution of our cross-age tutoring project in this article.

What Others Say About Cross-Age Tutoring

As I read about cross-age tutoring, I discovered that this practice improves reading attitudes, fluency and comprehension. Cross-age tutoring projects can foster student responsibility, empowerment and newfound interest in reading and writing activities (Bajtelsmit & Naab, 1994; Crowhurst, 1992; Heath & Mangiola, 1991), which were all goals that I had in mind for my students. Labbo and Teale (1990) hypothesized that tutoring experiences give a genuine purpose for repeated readings, because students are performing for a real audience. These students become more proficient readers as they repeat readings in preparing lessons. While I was most focused on my students' developing skills of independence and cooperation, I soon realized that their previous engagement with literature had been limited. As they practiced reading books for their younger students, they would learn that reading could be enjoyable and, consequently, become more proficient readers.

Topping (1989) warns that cross-age tutoring projects need to be entered into carefully, but notes the effectiveness of peer tutoring in improving the reading skills of both tutor and tutee in situations structured for maximum participation. Samway, Whang and Pippitt (1995) concur that organization is important in tutoring projects and that students need to be carefully prepared for these projects.

Leland and Fitzpatrick (1993) implemented a cross-age reading program to find a way to increase students' enthusiasm for reading and writing. The 6th-grade students they studied performed below grade level in reading and were unenthusiastic about reading and writing. At the end of the project, in which the 6th-graders tutored kindergartners in literacy activities, the older students' attitudes improved. The authors credited this newfound enthusiasm to the students' sense of empowerment they achieved in their tutoring sessions.

The research literature cited above focused on students teaching each other through both informal and formal discussion, writing and reading. Cross-age tutoring can be a realistic strategy for engaging students socially, building self-esteem and responsibility, and increasing reading and writing abilities.

I wanted to empower my students by making them responsible for younger students' learning through cross-age tutoring experiences. I wanted them to become more independent, cooperative and responsible for their own learning by interacting in an authentic teaching and learning situation. In addition, I expected that they would benefit from a change in attitude about learning, in particular reading and writing, because they would see a real purpose for those skills.

The Context of the Class

The 27 children (17 boys, 10 girls) in my classroom ranged in age from 8 to 11 years old. They were accustomed to a traditional classroom environment in which they were expected to work quietly and alone. In addition, the previous teacher had supplied the students with study carrels to ensure independent work. As might be expected, their independent work had consisted of workbook-type activities, and lessons were taught to the whole class as though all the students were at the same developmental level.

When I arrived, I found that the children were unable to work cooperatively. They were somewhat surprised when I changed the curriculum and classroom environment, making them work together on projects, for example. This freedom to work together initially re-suited in chaos. The students talked, did not complete the majority of their work and certainly were not engaged in their projects.

Preparing the Students for Cross-age Tutoring

* Modeling. I prepared for the cross-age tutoring project by meeting with small groups of students over three weeks to model reading techniques they would use with younger children. First, I showed them how to hold a book so that a child could see the pictures and words. I also encouraged them to look at a listener while reading to see if he or she was attentive. Second, I demonstrated how to encourage predictions of plot development before and during reading. The students learned how to use the cover and text as stopping places to encourage discussion and predictions. Third, I helped them understand what fluent reading sounded like and encouraged them to practice reading books until they could read them fluently before tutoring. Fourth, I showed them some picture books, known to be children's favorites, that they could read easily. The students became familiar with authors like Eric Carle, Tomie dePaola and Steven Kellogg. Finally, I showed them how to develop easy open-ended questions to facilitate discussion with the younger students: What is your favorite part? What does the story remind you of? What do you think about the characters? I wanted them to have these questions prepared in case their partner proved to be initially reluctant to discuss the books.

* The lesson plan. I showed my students the lesson plans I had developed for our class as a way to emphasize how important it is to plan before tutoring. I developed a simple form that they could use to prepare for their tutoring sessions that included: the title of the book; questions they might ask before, during and after reading; an extension activity; and materials. A sample form is shown in Figure 1. While I expected the students to move beyond this form as they gained experience tutoring, the form provided them with an organized way to plan from the start.

This form also served as a transition from the clear, convergent expectations of their previous teachers, toward my more open-ended, divergent expectations. I also heeded the warnings of Topping (1989) that students need clear expectations before tutoring so that the sessions will benefit everyone.

The students practiced with each other as they prepared for their tutoring. Each student worked through his or her plan with another student in the class before tutoring the younger students. This process helped them decide if the book they were using was too long or difficult or if the extension activity was too complicated.

The Tutoring Experience

The primary students (1st- and 2nd-graders) came to our class once a week for 45 minutes. Because our school was organized into "families" (primary classrooms and intermediate classrooms were clustered together), this type of instruction between classes was routine and not something out of the ordinary. The younger students were scheduled for tutoring each Wednesday; this schedule afforded my students two days of practice before the actual tutoring occurred. Students were matched according to approximations of literacy development, acquired through Informal Reading Inventories. We did not want older students who were still considered to be beginning readers and writers tutoring primary students who were becoming fluent readers and writers. To prevent these potentially embarrassing situations, fluent readers and writers in the intermediate class were matched with the most proficient readers and writers in the primary class. These matches were constructed to correspond to all levels of literacy development.

During each tutoring session, especially at the beginning of our tutoring project, the intermediate students followed their plan of discussion, reading and extension activity. After the younger children returned to their classroom, my students had a chance to talk about the tutoring experience with the class as a whole and to write individual reflections about it. They often used these reflection activities as a way to refine their tutoring for the next session. I also shared my written reflections of the tutoring session, so that the students would actively reflect on their experience and engage in meaningful writing.

Discoveries from Tutoring

As I observed the tutoring dyads, listened to my students' discussions, read through the students' plans and reflections from January to June, and talked to the primary teacher, I began to notice similarities or patterns: 1) student plans became more student-centered and complex over time, 2) tutors assumed responsibility for the children they were tutoring, 3) students' attitudes changed about tutoring and 4) students' vision of teaching evolved. Each of these patterns will be explored below.

* Plans became more student-centered and complex over time. As the students began planning, they picked books and topics that they would like, without considering the tutored student's personal interests. Chris, for example, put together a space study although his student really wanted to learn about animals. He even continued the study for a time, despite his student's evident lack of interest.

In addition, when I first looked at my students' plans, they were very simple. Their preferred activity was to have students draw a picture of a favorite part of the book. Sometimes, they even suggested that the student should copy the picture directly from the book. Stephanie's plan [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED] shows this narrow focus.

As Stephanie became more confident about tutoring, she started to include more complex activities, such as comparing and contrasting a child's version of a story with the actual story.

Other students in the class showed a similar development in their planning by including extensions such as creating museums, plays, murals, dioramas and puppet shows. It was fun to watch my students imitate many of the activities from our own classroom.

* The tutors became responsible for the children they were tutoring. At first, the tutors allowed their students to lose interest in the reading and projects. They would complain that their pupils were walking around or not paying attention to their books or writing activities, yet made no attempt to change or modify these behaviors. Lorein, for example, expressed concern about her student's behavior [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 3 OMITTED]. As Lorein gained tutoring experience, she began to anticipate her pupil's wandering interest [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 4 OMITTED] and learned to redirect her attention.

The students began to plan with their pupils' interests in mind. They responded to the younger children's desire to interact with books longer than initially planned. Through personal reflections and classroom discussion, the students explained how they were revising their plans and responding to their students' interests. Joseph, for example, sounded like an experienced teacher as he assessed his pupil's behavior and then planned for his next lesson [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 5 OMITTED]. He noted her lack of interest and decided to find a shorter book, and he realized the importance of praising her attempts at drawing.

Later, Joseph discovered ways of keeping his student involved throughout the tutoring experience. He decided to read Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (Barrett, 1982) and have his student create a three-dimensional diorama. He chose a book that his student knew and an extension activity that interested her. He was still revising his lesson plan, however, as he did not have enough time to complete the project [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 6 OMITTED].

* Attitudes changed about tutoring. At first, some of the intermediate students were not convinced about the benefits of the tutoring experience. They found it difficult to work cooperatively with their peers in preparation for tutoring and found their younger students to be uncooperative at times. They often commented that they did not enjoy tutoring. Crystal, for example, hated the way her student acted. She decided that her student was bossy and was not impressed when the other girl wanted to change the planned activity. Crystal was not alone in these feelings; several of the students expressed similar feelings about tutoring. Gradually, these feelings changed as the older students saw that planning and experience led to more productive tutoring sessions. In one of Crystal's later reflections, her feelings had clearly changed. She was even brave enough to ask her student how she felt about the tutoring [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 7 OMITTED].

* Their vision of teaching. At first, the students thought that merely picking a book and reading it would engage the younger students in follow-up activities. As noted earlier, the students quickly learned to pick books that were appropriate for, and interesting to, their younger pupils. Additionally, they commented about how they learned to become better teachers. Joseph stated, "You have to teach them. You can't just sit there when they're doing the work. You have to work with them. If you don't they might be doing the wrong thing."

Other students commented on how hard it was to plan for teaching. Larry said, "It is hard to be a teacher because you [have] to read books and think of activities to use for your tutoring person." Lamario's comments were similar: "I was a teacher. I read hard [books] and try my best to pick an activity."

In addition, the intermediate students became more aware of the students' developmental differences. Kirby commented, "I learned how much they like to get read to. Some kids [get] frustrated reading and some take longer." Beyond these observations, the tutors refined their teaching when they discovered it was too difficult for their students. Fabricio noted that when the reading or activity became too difficult, "we help him [or her]." These students learned the power of successful learning experiences. They were able to revise their teaching or to intercede when appropriate to ensure that their students were successful.

Final Thoughts

As the weeks passed, I noticed that my students became more responsible and independent in classroom learning, even beyond the tutoring experiences. I observed that the students now looked to each other for support, rather than always coming to me. Ongoing discussions throughout the tutoring encouraged my students to question each other and discuss possible outcomes and problem-solving strategies. Peer responses became more common in writing workshops. They were able to analyze other children's stories and suggest ideas for improvement. They used their new insights about book selection when picking books for themselves for the reading workshop. They helped brainstorm extension activities for the books that we shared in class, thus taking responsibility for the class's learning activities.

The cross-age tutoring project helped my students reach the goals I had set for them. They became aware that they were teachers and could help each other. They valued this new perspective about teaching. They appreciated reading books that were interesting to them and recognized that each student responded to a book in a unique way and each response is valid and interesting. Most important, they appreciated the peer talk that occurred as they read or wrote. As their awareness grew, they moved from being passive learners to becoming active learners. They began trusting each other and valuing each other's opinions.

My role became one of a facilitator now that my students often initiated their own learning. Heath and Mangiola (1991) described similar changes in the students they nurtured through cross-age tutoring experiences. They commented on how the students in their tutoring projects began to sound like teachers as they planned lessons for younger students and noted how this discussion accompanied them in their own learning.

In their written reflections and oral discussion, my students expressed ideas and thoughts about their own learning as well as the learning of the children they tutored. They understood when a book was too hard to read or when an idea was not thought out enough. They valued each other's ideas for the next tutoring session and would ask about books and activities that other students had found to be successful. This dialogue helped my students become a cooperative class. The discussion and reflection served as the transitional strategy they needed in order to learn how to interact with each other. Their discussions with younger students showed them how to help their peers.

I felt that cross-age tutoring changed my students' level of responsibility. They respected each other in a new way and valued themselves as learners and teachers. Our class became an exciting place to observe as the students supported each other in teaching and learning.

References

Bajtelsmit, L., & Naab, H. (1994). Partner writers: A shared reading and writing experience. The Reading Teacher, 48(1), 91-93.

Barrett, R. (1982). Cloudy with a chance of meat-balls. New York: Atheneum.

Crowhurst, M. (1992). Some effects of corresponding with an older audience. Language Arts, 69, 268-273.

Heath, S., & Mangiola, L. (1991). Children of promise: Literate activity in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

Katz, L. (1990). The case for mixed-age grouping in early education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Labbo, L., & Teale, W. (1990). Cross-age reading: A strategy for helping poor readers. The Reading Teacher, 46(6), 362369.

Leland, C., & Fitzpatrick, R. (1993). Cross-age interaction builds enthusiasm for reading and writing. The Reading Teacher, 47(4), 292-301.

Samway, K., Whang, G., & Pippitt, M. (1995). Buddy reading: Cross-age tutoring in a multicultural school. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Topping, K. (1989). Peer tutoring and paired reading: Combining two powerful techniques. The Reading Teacher, 42, 488-494.

Rebecca Barone Schneider is a teacher in the Clark County School District, Las Vegas, Nevada. Diane Barone is an Associate Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Nevada, Reno.