Creativity: An Essential Component for Effective Leadership in Today's Schools.

Much has been written about creativity and the creative person, as well as about leadership and the principal, but studies that explain a relationship between creativity and leadership are limited (Norris, 1990). Moreover, creativity and leadership are seldom linked together to define creative leadership. Simonton (1984), however, suggests that "when the most famous creators and leaders are under scrutiny, the distinction between creativity and leadership vanishes because creativity becomes a variety of leadership" (p. 181). Norris (1990) agrees that leadership is creative to the extent that the leader has a wide knowledge of educational theory, poses the ability to analyze current situations in light of what should be, can identify problems, and conceptualizes new avenues of change. Bleedorn (1986) poses the argument that the development of creative potential is vital if leaders are to function effectively in the future. For the gilled child, creativity is an essential component in his educational program and may well be a desirable problem solving skill for the educational leader. Complex issues confronting school leaders today require leadership marked by high levels of creativity. With the rapidly changing and increasingly complex educational challenges of today, it is time to find out if effective leaders do share creative traits and use them to accomplish their tasks.

The purpose of this exploratory research study was to investigate the possibility that a relationship can be established and supported between creativity and leadership by determining the levels of use of selected creativity traits as they relate to the variables under study. If a relationship between creativity and leadership is established and supported, could the relationship be developed as a concrete measure in formulating criteria for the selection and development of educational leaders? Furthermore, if the study establishes a relationship between creativity and leadership, then that relationship suggests emphasizing creativity in traditional administration training programs. If a link can be established between creativity and leadership, then that link indicates that the group in the study brings to leadership some skills that may not be taught in traditional administration programs. It suggests that universities consider designing preparation programs that train future leaders to develop their creative potential to the fullest.

Methodology

Population and Sample

The population for the study consisted of four effective principals from school districts located in the Southwest that participated in the National Association of Secondary School Principals Assessment Center (NASSP, 1978) and achieved a score of 4.0 (above average) on the NASSP assessment participated in the study. This purposive sample was selected based on the geographic radius for the researcher. Table 1 summarizes other sample characteristics.

Table 1 Characteristics of Sample

Principal    Gender    Age       Campus
                                  Level

A            F         45-50     Middle
B            M         35-40     Elementary
C            F         45-50     Elementary
D            M         40-45     High

Principal    Campus        Education
             Student       Achievement
             Population

A            1000-1200     MA
B            700-725       PhD
C            500-525       MA
D            1000-1200     EdD

Instrumentation 

A questionnaire was developed based on the variables: passion for work, independence, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests, goal setting, intelligence, and motivation which seem to differentiate more creative from less creative people. These variables were selected based on a literature review that found passion for work (Roe, 1953; Maslow, 1968; Shouksmith, 1970), independence (MacKinnon, 1961; Chambers, 1964), originality (Martindale, 1984, MacKinnon, 1962), flexibility (Rouse, 1986; Helson & Crutchfield 1970), wide range of interests (Prentky, 1980; Barton & Harrington, 1981), goal setting (Einstein & Infeld 1938; Janson 1977; Getzels & Csikszentmihalyi, 1976), intelligence (Barton 1955, Wallach & Kagan, 1965), and motivation (MacKinnon, 1960, 1962; Amabile 1979) as identifying traits of creative people. For the purpose of this study "passion for work" is defined as the ability to mix personal and professional enthusiasm and energy; "independence" is the ability to initiate and sustain autonomous thought and action; "originality" is the ability to develop novel approaches in problem solving; "flexibility" is the ability to adapt or modify to new situations or ideas; "wide range of interest" shows interest wide variety of subjects and to participate in events; "goal setting" is the ability to select a task and complete it; "intelligence" is defined as beyond an IQ of 120, although intelligence and creativity are not necessarily closely related (Barron, 1955); and "motivation" is defined as the need to achieve in all attempted activities and to be self-evaluating.

The questionnaire contained 47 items. Sample items referring to passion for work are: I will commit to those things that I believe in; I am enthusiastic about my work. Statements about independence are: I prefer to work independently; I am uncomfortable accepting arbitrary rules and pronouncements. I am interested in trying to answer the "What if ... "possibilities presented by a problem in a question example for originality. Flexibility statements are: before I assume that a problem is solved, I seek a wide variety of solutions to that problem; I am willing to entertain unusual solutions to problems offered by others. An example of wide range of interests is: I am curious about a lot of different things that effect the organization; intellectual play is just as important to me as intellectual work relates to intelligence. The last variable, motivation, is asked in the statement: I am interested in being confronted with new situations; I am enthusiastic about ideas I generate. Principals responded with their own perceptions of their creative behavior. Responses on the questionnaire were measured by a five-point Likert scale with 1, never; 2, infrequently; 3, sometimes; 4, frequently; and 5, always.

In addition, an In-Depth Interview Guide (1991, Goertz & Lemley) for principals was designed based on the variables, and the questions were keyed to the variables. The questions were designed to allow the researcher to probe for answers related to specific events and behaviors. The in-depth interview permitted the principals to elaborate upon their responses to the survey questions.

Validity Assessment Twenty-two principals who had participated in the NASSP assessment validated the self-perception instrument for principals. The pretest form of the questionnaire provided space for the respondents to make comments about the questionnaire. A matrix was developed to record their comments so that specific revisions could be made in the survey that measured the variables of passion for work, independence, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests. goal setting, intelligence, creativity, and motivation. A revised version was then sent to a second convenient sample of 22 NASSP trained administrators, and their comments were also incorporated into the final questionnaire.

Data Collection Procedures

Data were compiled and analyzed for frequency of creative behavior. The sources of information were the principals' questionnaire and an in-depth interview with each principal so that different viewpoints could surface. By using these the researcher hoped to overcome the intrinsic bias that is injected from choosing either method alone. The in-depth interview responses consisted of direct quotations from the principals about their experiences, opinions, feelings and knowledge.

The superintendents of the identified schools participating in the NASSP assessment were contacted by phone prior to data collection. Those schools which met the criteria of having a principal scoring 4.0 on assessment received a letter which explained the nature and value of their participation in the study. Principals were requested to return a self-addressed postcard indicating their willingness to cooperate. The principal then was contacted and scheduled a one-hour to two-hour interview using the In-Depth Interview Guide. The in-depth interview allowed the principal to explain particular situations for each question in elaborate and comprehensive detail (Jorgensen, 1989). All four principals solicited agreed to participate and letters and questionnaires were delivered by the researcher.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data were compiled and analyzed for frequency of creative behavior. This statistical analysis (Brewer & Hunter, 1989) was descriptive and inferential. A qualitative data matrix was created to summarize the comments from the In-Depth Interview Guide. Summary descriptive phrases for each principal were recorded and coded for variables of creativity in this study.

Results

Research Question 1

To what extent are perceived uses of specific traits of creativity exhibited by effective principals in conducting their professional responsibilities?

Passion for Work The summary findings for the trait passion for work suggest that principals perceive themselves frequently exhibiting the trait. It can be surmised that effective principals are committed to working very hard, since they are frequently committed to things they believe in and are persistent in completing a task. Persistence in completing a task can be described as a passion because the effective principal frequently refuses to put an idea aside until it is satisfactorily resolved.

The effective principal talks earnestly about the importance of work, which suggests responsibility is not just the organizational goal but also consists of the leader's direction for the organization. Responsibility is the expression of what the principal wants for the organization. Effective leaders are strong champions of the mission of the organization and pursue their responsibility to the organization with energy and passion. They are undeviatingly committed to hard work.

Independence The findings for the trait independence suggest that effective principals perceive themselves as sometimes independent in thought and action. This suggests that the effective leader is employee-centered. The effective principal, however, takes action to find solutions to problems sometimes preferring to finding solutions to problems using a non-conforming method. Using non-conformity to solve a problem indicates an individual and independent style to finding solutions to problems and listens to constructive criticism; however, she would rather think things through independently and take singular action to solve problems.

Goal Setting The results from the trait "goal setting" suggests that effective principals perceive themselves sometimes exhibiting the trait. They sometimes worry about what others might say about their efforts indicating that effective principals have a clear vision about their purposes.

Originality The summary findings for the trait originality suggest that effective principals perceive themselves as frequently exhibiting the trait, showing a special drive to be original, and preferring to try unique solutions to the problem. The effective principals describes themselves as satisfied only with original solutions that encourage new and different ways to get things done. Effective principals frequently seek out people who come up with new ways to get things done. This self description of "frequently" relying on originality to solve a problem suggests the effective principal utilizes the unconventional solutions to problems.

Flexibility The trait flexibility suggests that effective principals perceive themselves frequently exhibiting the trait, particularly in finding answers to a problem to determine the best solution. Flexibility in problem solving generates a range of ideas suggesting variety rather than quantity. Thus, the effective principal frequently has categories of solutions from which she could select the best one. Playing with ideas, and fooling around with a range of notions, generates unique solutions. With a variety of problem-solving ideas from which to choose to solve a problem, the effective principal reports being more adaptable to change.

Wide Range of Interests Effective principals perceive themselves frequently exhibiting this trait.

Intelligence As in the previous trait, principals perceive themselves exhibiting the trait frequently. Playing with ideas allows the best solution to emerge and then critically analyzing the solution suggests intellectual work.

Motivation Effective principals perceive themselves as exhibiting this trait frequently, accompanied by high levels of self-confidence, especially when considering the most likely reaction to a novel solution to a problem. The reactions of others to a novel tack is, of course, often negative. No principal who lacks confidence would produce a novel solution. Effective principals express their opinions strongly and push themselves and others toward the realization of the leader's views.

Effective principals frequently enjoy their success. Success for the effective principal is defined as taking charge of one's actions, and by those actions to motivate others to do something that has not been done before. Taking action may even assist accomplishing goals that have never been well defined.

Effective principals are also frequently enthusiastic about their ideas. By setting an example of enthusiasm for ideas, the effective principal may alter the behavior of others, thereby motivating them. The effective principals' strategic function, then, is to enhance motivation and performance in the faculty.

Research Question 2

How often do successful principals self report on the variables passion for work, independence, goal setting, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests, intelligence and creativity, and motivation? To complete this question the four principals completed a one- to two-hour individual in-depth interview with the researcher. This process allowed the principal to explain each response in elaborate and comprehensive detail which in effect operationalize trait definitions.

Passion for Work Phrases for the trait passion for work acquired from the effective principals' in-depth interview imply that hard work is the key factor. Principal B stated, "You work very hard; you try to get everything done." Principal D agreed, "You put in extra effort; it takes effort to get the job done." The failure to make a distinction between personal commitment and professional commitment is indicating "passion" work. Principal B stated, "Belief is personal to be professionally committed." Principal C agrees, "Professional commitment is a personal commitment." Principal D concurred, "I don't mind mixing my professional life with personal (life). "Finding ways to get the job done, even when other things get in the way, signifies responsibility, direction, and completing goals. Principal A said, "Find a way to accomplish both (tasks and getting the job done), by using a different approach."

Principals C and D suggested prioritizing tasks and making new schedules. Effective principals agree that any problem can be solved given the right resources, people, and time. Solving problems requires confidence and drive to achieve, key elements of the trait passion for work. Enthusiasm, energy, and persistence are qualities of an effective principal. The effective principal is positive in action and word. Positive language was used by all the principals. Looking for the challenge in the job, taking risks and doing things in different ways quality as effective leadership. The effective principal demonstrates leadership by being a positive role model.

Independence The principals were driven by independence of thought and action. They all agreed that independence in problem-solving is important. Principal A said, "To solve a problem you need ownership and independence." Principal D suggested, "Site-based management requires you to do it yourself (without central office). I can do a program with financial backing alone." Principal B and C agreed on the need to solve a problem independently; however, they feel it is all right to ask for help. Independence is portrayed by autonomy on the job. This factor of independence allows the effective principal to step outside the rules, or to abandon them even when unusual situations demand that behavior. The variable nature of school events requires that the principal adapt consistently to contexts, to situations and to individual needs.

Independence is necessary in solving problems in unusual ways since problem solving requires risk taking, using imagination, and synthesizing ideas to come up with different solutions for problems. It suggests individual style as a basic attribute related to successful and effective principals. Words that describe an independent thinker for Principals A, B, and C suggest a strong drive for independence in thought and action. Style in solving problems is a visible manifestation of a unique personality. Style is that special something that differentiates the leader from the crowd and marks her as unique.

Goal Setting The summary descriptive phrases for the trait goal setting acquired from the effective principals' in-depth interview imply a strong drive to have a goal and to pursue that goal relentlessly. By having an established goal, the effective principal can find problems within the parameters of the goal. Finding problems is just as important as solving problems in problem solving.

Goal setting suggests being clear about one's purpose in life. All four principals agreed they completed most of what they started. Principal A said, "I don't leave too many things undone." Principal B reported, "I like having a goal and going after it." Principal C said, "I usually do complete (what I start)." "Principal D agreed, "Most of the time (I complete) what I start." The effective principal has a clear vision for the school. He completes goals that he sees as important to the school.

Originality Originality for these principals imply satisfaction only with solutions which are original and meet the individual's high standards of excellence. Principals B, C, and D attributed success of the solution to the uniqueness of the solution. Finding unconventional solutions to problems, seeking new and different ways to get things done, and deviating from the routine, all point towards originality in problem solving. Principal B reported the student who drew up a contract and signed it as a successful solution to a problem. Principal C explained activities that students wanted as an alternative to a lunch-room problem.

Having a wide variety of people on a committee parallels with having a wide variety of categories from which to select to solve a problem. In other words, originality results when several ideas are generated to select the best solution. To seek originality the effective principal seeks input from lots of sources and attempts to engage staff members who are goal oriented and seek task completion.

Flexibility The principals agreed that flexibility is necessary to finding answers to a problem to determine the best solutions. Flexibility in problem solving generates a variety of ideas, rather than a large number of ideas. Principal A said, "Generally I generate 3 to 4 different solutions." Principal C agreed: ("I look for a wide variety of ideas) from others and myself." Principal B maintained that time is a key factor in looking for help to generate a wide variety of ideas. Principal C suggested, "We do have more time because there is next year." Since effective principals play with ideas, better solutions to problems are generated."

Wide Range of Interests The summary descriptive phrases for the trait wide range of interests acquired from the effective principals' in-depth interview imply variety as a necessary component of problem solving. All principals described themselves as having a wide range of interests. Principal A stated, "Athletics, skiing, playing softball, performing as a professional musician, a presenter who is novel, funny and quick with humor." Principal B's wide range of interests ranged from sports to business. Principal C and D mentioned reading and types of sports as interests. The diversity of interests suggests that the effective principal has a variety of areas from which to draw information in order to solve problems. Creative ideas arise from combining ideas from different disciplines. Giving support to and credit for others' ideas suggests the effective principal has an interest in a variety of ideas. A stated, "Go to them (teachers).... (give) support and credit." Principal B said, "Put it on paper, give credit, and tell district office." Principal C agreed, "Go to them and give them a note." Principal D suggested, "Give them credit and let them be part of the implementation." It can be concluded that the effective principal will eventually apply every idea which is applicable.

Speculating on ways to solve problems, considering alternative solutions before deciding alternatives are not acceptable, and finding as many solutions as possible to problem solving are all characteristic of using a wide range of interests to solve a problem. Principal A suggested seeking out conventional solutions to a problem as a last resort. Principal A declared alternatives must be sought before the conventional solutions to a problem. In contrast, Principal B suggested conventional solutions are somewhere to start and are the bases for solutions.

Intelligence For these principals intellectual play is just as important as intellectual work. Effective principals agree they display intellectual curiosity. Effective principals exhibit intellectual curiosity by asking questions, risking and taking chances, and listening and talking to people. Principal A and B suggested taking a chance as descriptors of what they do when they are curious. "Listen" was a recurring word characterizing curious behavior for principals C and D. Effective principals suggest intellectual play is just as important as intellectual work. In other words, work is play. Principal C suggested work is play by stating, "Things at school are play."

Motivation The principals agreed that self confidence is the key factor in motivation. Motivation suggests enthusiasm, energy, and vitality. Effective principals display enthusiasm by asking questions and interacting with others. Principal A displayed enthusiasm by, "Asking others (about ideas) and interacting with others (about ideas." Principal B agreed, "Tell someone; ... tell close friends." Principal C suggested presenting things in an enthusiastic way. Effective principals enhance motivation by effectively communicating with, and setting successful examples for teachers. Principal B exhibited success by smiling, feeling good about the day, and doing something that makes a difference. These words suggest self-confidence as an element of success. Principal A suggested risking a bit to have success. Principal B said, "I press people to do more than they think they can." Principal C stated, "All the time, I don't mind if credit goes to others." Principal D gave an example, "Everyday we are reinforcing students with good work." The underlying theme was reaching individual potential for success.

Conclusions

It is clear from these findings that it is time for these defined creativity traits to be considered a viable component in a leadership training. Leadership is more than "any act of influences on a matter of organizational relevance," as suggested by Katz and Kahn (1966). Leadership is more than "an interpersonal influence, exercised in situations and directed through the communication process, toward the attainment of specific goal or goals" (Tannebaum, Weschler, & Massarik, 1961). Effective leadership qualities consist of more than being an administrator or a manager. Effective leadership is orchestrating the totality of the enterprise with creativity traits of passion for work, independence, goal setting, originality, flexibility, wide range of interests, intelligence and creativity, and motivation.

The future of education may well need the emergence of the creative principal. The creative leader is energetic, enthusiastic, confident, flexible and purposeful. The creative leader is willing to serve others, is tearless in standing up for right, is willing to try new things, takes initiative and follows through. These traits suggest the creative leader as a encourager and motivator of people. The creative leader guides group activities toward common goals. The creative leader is a skillful master of motivation, and able to nurture a deep sense of commitment and drive among her followers, who then attempt to achieve the unachievable. The creative leader is the educational leader and effective leader for the future.

REFERENCES

Amabile, T. M. (1979). Effects of external evaluation on artistic creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 221-233.

Barron, F. (1955). The disposition toward originality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 478-485.

Bleedorn, B. (1986). Creativity: number one leadership talent for global futures. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 20(4), 276-279.

Brewer, J. & Hunter, A. (1989). Multi-method research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Barron, F. (1955). The disposition toward originality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 478-485.

Barron, F., & Harrington, D. M. (1981). Creativity, intelligence, and personality. Annual Review of Psychology. 32, 439-476.

Chambers, J. A. (1964). Relating personality and biographical factors to scientific creativity. Psychological Monographs, 78 (7. Whole No. 584).

Einstein, A., & Infeld. L. (1938). The evolution of physics. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Goertz, M, J. & Lemley, R. (1991). In-depth interview guide. (unpublished interview guide).

Getzels, J. W., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1976). The creative vision: A longitudinal study of problem finding in art. New York: Wiley.

Helson, R., & Crutchfield, R. S. (1970). Mathematicians: The creative researcher and the average Ph.D. Journal of Consulting trod Clinical Psychology, 34, 250-257.

Janson, H. W. (1977). History of art. (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, and New York: Abrams.

Jorgensen, D. (1989). Participant observation: A method for human studies. Newberry Park, CA: SAGE Publications.

Katz, D., & Kahn, R.L. (1966). The social psychology of organizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1960). The highly effective individual. Teachers College Record. 61. 367-378.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1961). Creativity in architects. In The creative person. Proceedings of a conference presented at the University of California Alumni Center, Lake Tahoe, CA.

MacKinnon, D. W. (1962). The personality correlates of creativity. A study of American architects. In G. S. Nielsen (Ed.), Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Psychology (pp. 11-39). Copenhagen: Munksgaard.

Martindale, C. (1984). The pleasures of thought: A theory of cognitive hedonics. Journal of Mind and Behavior, 5, 49-80.

Maslow, A. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. NYC: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

National Association of Secondary School Principals (1978). NASSP assessor handbook: Reston, Virginia.

Norris, C. (1990). Developing visionary leaders for tomorrow's schools. NASSP Bulletin, 74,(526), 6-10,

Prentky, R. A. (1980). Creativity and psychopathology: A neurocognitive perspective. New York: Praeger.

Roe, A. (1953). The making of a scientist. New York: Dodd Mead.

Rouse, W. B. (1986). A note on the nature of creativity in engineering Implications for supporting system design, Information Processing and Management, 22, 279-285.

Shouksmith, G. (1970). Intelligence, creativity and cognitive style. London: Batsford Ltd.

Simonton, D. K. (1984). Genius, creativity, and leadership: Historiometric inquiries. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Tannenbaum, R., Weschler, I. R., & Massarik, F. (1961). Leadership organization: A behavioral approach. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Jeanie Goertz is educational consultant, Ohio Department of Education, Special Education, Worthington. She was the coordinator of the Masters Degree in Gifted Education and the Endorsement Program in Gifted Education at the University of Texas Pan American when this study took place.