Creating management leadership for the future: an integrated model.

ABSTRACT

As businesses approached and entered the new millennium considerable attention was given to identifying the knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies that the manager/leader of the twenty-first century would require (Greenberg, 1998; Shapiro, 1999; Kaydo, 2000; Dimitrijevic and Engel, 2002; Kacena, 2002). The result was a collection of both tangible, measurable skills (eg. knowledge of theories, concepts, financial procedure, etc), and intangible, 'soft-skills' that are hard to quantify (eg. commitment, flexibility, adaptability, and vision). All of which suggest that the managers of the future will need to be both managers and leaders.

Formal training, through colleges and universities, provides students with the tangible knowledge and skills required. However, acquiring the intangible 'soft-skills' is more difficult. Many of the soft-skills are related to specific industries and organisations, and may well be tied to the strategy, structure, values and culture of an organisation. Formal training, in its current form, is not able to develop many of the skills, attitudes and behaviours considered essential to the twenty-first century leader/manager. This change in emphasis has left organisations searching for answers. The re-emergence of mentoring as a popular development approach, the growth of workplace learning strategies and vocational education and training is a reflection of this search. To identify and develop the skills needed by their future managers/leaders, organisations need to look seriously at developing an in-house programme that transmits and develops the knowledge and expectations seen as essential for their success.

This paper presents a model that draws upon the ideas and concepts presented in the workplace learning, mentoring and vocational education literature. By building a unique, focused programme each organisation should be able to develop employees capable of meeting the specific needs of the organisation both for the present and the future. Like today's managers, education must adapt and be flexible.

Keywords: manager, leader, development, workplace learning, mentoring, vocational education and training

1. INTRODUCTION

Since the late 1980s there has been a steady stream of papers hypothesising, proposing and reflecting upon the knowledge, skills and abilities required by the managers and leaders of the twenty-first century (Kakabadse and Mukhi, 1986; McKenna, 1991; McKern, 1996; Greenberg, 1998; Domeyer, 1999; Shapiro, 1999; Buhler, 2000; Elizer, 2000; Kaydo, 2000). Now, in the early years of the twenty-first century answers are still being sought. What knowledge, skills and abilities are needed now, and in the future? What is the best way to develop the managers/leaders of the future?

Over the years considerable criticism has been directed at colleges and universities, and their perceived inability to equip graduates with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and abilities to meet the needs of business and industry (Cooper, 1981: Kakabadse and Muhli, 1986; Karpin, 1995; Jones, 1996; McKern, 1996; and Talbot, 1997). This paper suggests that the answer may lie within the organisations themselves; not the formal institutions which have traditionally been relied upon to produce the leaders of the future. Whilst the formal programmes offered by colleges and universities go a long way towards equipping graduates with the knowledge and outlook that they need to succeed, the more specific requirements of each organisation can only be met internally.

Developing a successful programme that will produce the management leadership needed for the future is a complex process that involves bringing together a number of different perspectives on formal and informal learning. It will require organisations to undertake a considerable amount of research, planning, design, implementation and evaluation. Much of which will also involve internal reflection and critical analysis of the organisation itself, how it operates and how its future is perceived. This article will outline the key elements involved in establishing such a programme and why this is considered to be the path to follow. The aim is to provide the reader with an understanding of the various processes involved and how they integrate to produce an effective learning and teaching approach. To accomplish this, the article will first examine the perceived needs of tomorrow's business organisations. Second, the concepts of workplace learning, mentoring and vocational education and training will be discussed and their contributions to management leadership development examined. Finally, this paper presents a model that draws upon the ideas and concepts presented in the workplace learning, mentoring and vocational education literature, to build a unique, focused programme that can be tailored to the needs of each organisation.

2. MEETING THE NEEDS OF TOMORROW'S BUSINESS ORGANISATIONS

As there is no one accepted definition of managers and management, or a conclusive list of what constitutes management activity, it is impossible to gain agreement on the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities that prospective managers should have or acquire (Mathews, 1999a). Debate also extends to identifying what constitutes management/leadership education and what the correct or best form of management/leadership education is. Despite this lack of agreement, most formal management/leadership education programmes offer a similar range of subjects designed to provide the required knowledge and skills for future managers/leaders including interpersonal skills, leadership, conflict resolution, information processing, decision-making, resource allocation, entrepreneurial, and introspection skills (Watson, 1993:17). Finding the correct or best way to provide this learning has resulted in a variety of different types of management/leadership development approaches and programmes. Whilst universities provide a sound introduction to the tangible knowledge and skills needed they also see their role as helping students "to widen the horizons, conceptually, environmentally and emotionally to develop their analytical abilities; to facilitate their self-awareness" (Byrt, 1989:14), which involves "educating for the process of management and increasing the effectiveness of managers in a work situation" (Jones, Ball and Shellens, 1972:6).

Of particular importance in the development of managers/leaders is the relevance of what is being taught, and this is an issue that has been raised frequently (Cooper, 1981: Kakabadse and Muhli, 1986; Karpin, 1995; Jones, 1996; McKern, 1996; and Talbot, 1997). It is clear that there is perceived to be a gap between the knowledge, skills and abilities of graduates and the needs of business and industry (Karpin, 1995). Many have called for more effective management/leadership skills and greatly improved management/leadership education to achieve competitiveness in international markets (Karpin, 1995; Lamond, 1996; and Edwards, O'Reilly and Schuwalow, 1997).

The perceived mismatch between management/leadership education and management/leadership requirements is due to a variety of factors. The most fundamental of these is the changing context within which management takes place. Dramatic changes in the organisational, economic and technological context have resulted in significant alterations to managerial work, and therefore the skills and capabilities needed by managers to be effective (Worrall and Cooper, 2001). Worrall and Cooper (2001:34) argued that:

   It is our view that the outcomes of these--and other--processes of
   change have brought about an intensification in the nature of
   managerial work and that this increased intensification of
   managerial work has radically changed the skills that managers need
   in order to be effective in the changed context in which they
   operate.

An examination of more contemporary literature on the current and future requirements of managers/leaders reveals a broad range of knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies (see Table 1) perceived as necessary for the twenty-first century (Greenberg, 1998; Shapiro, 1999; Kaydo, 2000; Dimitrijevic and Engel, 2002; Kacena, 2002).

Clearly, meeting these expectations will require a very different approach to the development of effective managers/leaders. The resulting collection of both tangible, measurable skills (eg. knowledge of theories, concepts, financial procedure, etc), and intangible, 'soft-skills' that are hard to quantify (eg. commitment, flexibility, adaptability, and vision) suggest that the managers of the future will need to be both managers and leaders. This presents both a complex problem and a unique opportunity.

Similarly, a review of contemporary literature which focuses more specifically on leadership and leader characteristics shows a parallel search for effective leaders and effective leadership education for the twenty-first century (Kacena, 2002; Stevenson, 1998; Smith and Peters, 1997). As with the concept of management, there is no clear definition of what constitutes leadership. It has been described by Parry (2001:164) as "... an ability, and a style and a process, which can be translated into a range of roles, activities, skills and behaviours". Stevenson (1998) in his search for an effective model of leadership development focused on the evolving nature of leadership, describing leadership as dynamic, constantly changing, maturing and experience related, and emphasised the developmental and long-term nature of leadership. Others have sought to describe leadership as a series of qualities and actions (Kim and Mauborgne, 1992). Either of these approaches to leadership is prescribing more than a superficial collection of traits and characteristics. Kim and Mauborgne (as cited in Latemore, 2001:174) draw upon ancient parables to illustrate the essence of good leadership. ... one of which explains that following a period of contemplation the pupil returned to the master and told him what he had learnt ...

   The master nodded approvingly. 'To hear the unheard', remarked Pan
   Ku, 'is a necessary discipline to be a good ruler. For only when
   leaders have learned to listen closely to the people's hearts,
   hearing their feelings uncommunicated, pains unexpressed and
   complaints not spoken of can they hope to inspire confidence in
   their people, to understand when something is wrong, and meet the
   true needs of their citizens.

   The demise of the state comes when leaders listen only to
   superficial words and do not penetrate deeply into souls of the
   people to hear their true feelings and their true desires.'
   (Kim and Mauborgne (1992), as cited in Latemore, 2001:174).

The varied nature of these required qualities makes developing manager/leaders for the future, encompassing all the above qualities, a challenge for education providers. Bolt (cited in Smith and Peters, 1997) argued that "At a time when leadership is more crucial than ever to our very survival, there is a severe shortage of people to lead corporations into the next century", and this can be attributed to the lack of any form of systematic leadership development. That leadership development that is available is very closely associated with the requirements of particular organisations and neglects some of the key attributes needed by future leaders--those of problem solving, initiative and creative thinking. As Smith and Peters (1997) stated

   ... leaders of out current and future business climate need not be
   highly charismatic individuals who create followers through
   personal magnetism. They are people who have developed the skills
   of thinking and acting "outside the box", who can confront and
   challenge old patterns, and spearhead new ones, at any level in the
   organisation. The problem is that we seem to know how to develop
   managerial skills but not these kinds of leadership skills....

Formal training, through colleges and universities, provides graduates with a lot of the tangible knowledge and skills required. However, acquiring the intangible 'soft-skills' is more difficult. Many of the soft-skills are related to specific industries and organisations, and may well be tied to the strategy, structure, values and culture of an organisation. Others are acquired through experience. The required balance of 'hard' and 'soft' skills has encouraged organisations to look beyond the traditional approach to developing their future leaders and managers. Having acknowledged that formal training, in its current form, is not able to develop many of the skills, attitudes and behaviours considered essential to the twenty-first century leader/manager, they are seeking answers from more informal methods of development. Through a process of trial and error, organisations are able to examine the contributions of both formal and informal methods and design more focused programmes that have the ability to transmit the knowledge, skills, etc that they need.

By adopting a cross-disciplinary view of management/leadership education and development organisation's are able to take advantage of the strengths of various approaches, and see how these can be integrated to build a collection of programmes that better suit their needs (see Figure 1). To identify and develop the skills needed by their future managers/leaders, organisations have recognised the need to look seriously at developing an in-house programme that transmits and develops the knowledge and expectations seen as essential for their success. The re-emergence of mentoring as a popular development approach, the growth of workplace learning strategies and vocational education and training is a reflection of this search.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

3. DEVELOPING MANAGERS THROUGH EDUCATION

In acknowledging the complex requirements of management/leadership in the twenty-first century it seems obvious that no simple approach will provide the solution to the perceived shortage of effective leader/managers. But is this really true? Are a series of complex, formal education programmes what is needed? To educate (6) leader/managers, and develop in them the qualities that organisations are seeking requires more individually tailored approaches, which consider both the organisation's characteristics and those of the individual. To this end it is suggested that the broader conceptual approaches of workplace learning, mentoring and vocational education and training have a significant contribution to make, which may in fact be able to address the current lack of 'soft skills' in graduates. Each of these conceptual approaches will be addressed individually and their potential contribution to management/leadership development examined.

3.1 Workplace Learning and Management Development

Despite the relatively recent emergence of workplace learning as an important trend, and a concern of organisations, it is not a new idea. Various forms of workplace learning have existed since the beginning of formal and informal work patterns. The focus or emphasis of the learning may have changed, along with the name used; but some form of learning was taking place.

Numerous definitions of workplace learning exist (Marsick, 1987 as quoted in NBEET, 1994; Holliday and Retallick, 1995; Rylatt, 1994), all of which place emphasis on the importance of interpersonal and contextual influences, individual learning, reasons for learning, and how people respond to change. However, for the purposes of this discussion the following definition is used:

   Workplace learning involves the process of reasoned learning
   towards desirable outcomes for the individual and the organisation.
   These outcomes should foster the sustained development of both the
   individual and the organisation, within the present and future
   context of the organisational goals and the individual career
   development. (Mathews, 1999b: 19).

The principal argument within this definition is that any workplace learning should produce desirable outcomes for the individual and the organisation, and assist development.

For workplace learning to achieve its stated objectives certain learning opportunities and conditions need to be evident within the workplace. Any attempts to improve the organisations efficiency, productivity, profit, or quality must begin by closely examining the workplace; ensuring goal clarity, evaluation of learning outcomes, effective group relations, improved collaboration between individuals, and involvement in decision-making. All of which affect what type of learning takes place and how (adapted from Rosenholtz, 1989; as cited in NBEET, 1994:14).

Of particular importance are the conditions under which learning takes place. Holliday (1994:2) argued that there must be "... states of being, thinking or acting that promote, through their presence, processes of learning". Workplace learning can be formal, informal or incidental. Resnick (1987) and Scribner (1986) (as cited in NBEET, 1994:11) argued that learning within the workplace has a number of features that distinguish it from other types of learning. It is task focused, occurs in a social context characterised by status differences, is collaborative, and often experience--or problem focused and is cognitively different from learning in schools (NBEET, 1994:11). Workplace learning also requires a change (behavioural or attitudinal) on the part of the individual and /or the organisation in response to learning or experience (Estes 1975:9; as quoted in Watkins, 1991:9).

Due to the constant change in an increasingly complex business environment learning in the workplace is a crucial part of any organisations planning and development strategies (Boswell, 1995 and Howell, 1995). Life-long learning, the continuous up dating of skills and qualifications, must become the norm, not the exception. Support for these ideas has been seen in a number of recent policies in Australia, designed to improve the skills of the workforce and decrease the growing skills gap; particularly the Mayer Report (1992) into the development of key competencies and competency based training. If organisations are seriously "interested in developing the true capacity of its people" (Rylatt, 1994:15) they must be prepared to closely examine their existing policies, systems and activities to determine whether they are supporting or inhibiting workplace learning. Any industry/workplace wishing to introduce a new attitude to learning in the workplace will face an enormous challenge in convincing individuals, teams, and organisations of the importance of workplace learning for their future, and gaining their true commitment.

A variety of models of workplace learning have been proposed, which draw together many of the ideas presented in the literature. Of particular importance is the individual and organisational perception of workplace learning, as this will direct every aspect of its application in the workplace. The model in Figure 2 presents workplace learning from a more holistic view incorporating consideration of a broad range of factors. In this model emphasis is given to the importance of factors both internal and external to the organisation, as no organisation operates in a vacuum and an internal organisational climate, which supports the philosophy of learning--providing both resources and encouragement, is necessary.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

The needs of organisations feature strongly in workplace learning approaches, however, individual, subjective issues such as attitudes, commitment, motivation and self-image, have been included as these are particularly important for any successful learning. People will only adopt new ideas, knowledge or skills if they are interested in learning, or find some benefit for themselves in doing so. Understanding the relationship between inputs, outputs and outcomes will assist in harnessing the involvement of individuals in the learning process.

Clearly workplace learning can address many of the current and future needs of managers and leaders, and can take many forms--both formal and informal. However, it is not something that can be done overnight; but a long-term commitment by both the organisation and the individual. As organisations begin to see the benefits of workplace learning activities they will become increasingly committed to developing more focused programmes to meet their specific organisational needs, which will help to maintain the momentum.

3.2 Management Development Through Mentoring

A long-standing method of transferring knowledge and understanding within an organisational setting, that has stood the test of time, is mentoring. The perception of mentoring is as varied as the concept of the mentor (7). This is a reflection of both concept differences, and participant expectations. Spencer (1996:5) described mentoring as 'a relationship which gives people the opportunity to share their professional and personal skills and experiences, and to grow and develop in the process'. More comprehensive definitions have been presented by Carmin (1988) and Appelbaum (2000:19) (see Table 2). These more closely reflect the complex nature of the mentoring process.

Mentoring has been widely recognised as a valuable method for staff development, transmission of corporate culture, and socialisation (Mathews, 2005). A properly designed mentoring programme can be a useful, structured way to communicate, and transfer information related to the expectations of different management approaches to new and existing employees. Whilst it is only one method of facilitating learning in the workplace, it is designed to make use of guided learning to develop the knowledge and skills required for high performance in the workplace (Tovey, 1999:5), and can be geared to the specific requirements of any organisation at any time. It focuses on helping an individual to assess their experiences, and strengths and weaknesses, and provides guidance and support to enable them to make the most of opportunities (Appelbaum, 2000). Mentoring has been used by many organisations to address a variety of issues and problems associated with equal employment opportunity, high turnover, commitment, job satisfaction, and employee diversity to name a few.

Many organisations have recognised that much of the learning and development of employees does not take place within the boundaries of traditional learning situations. Wallis (1998:15) argued that there is a "need for the organisational information, methods and culture to be transferred to other members of the workplace", and this 'learning transfer' could best be addressed through the use of mentoring with its techniques of guided and assisted learning.

This belief is widely reflected in the number of private and public organisations that have introduced formal mentoring programmes over recent years. Spencer, (1996:24-31) reported outcomes from mentoring programmes that include increased motivation, skill, self-confidence and job satisfaction; improved resource utilisation, communication, co-ordination, networking and support between individuals and units; and greater understanding of corporate culture and values. In a recent study, Hansford, Ehrich and Tennent (2003:224) reviewed 151 studies on mentoring and found that over 90% of these reported evidence of positive outcomes. They argued therefore, that the "evidence suggests that implementing a mentoring program can be a productive strategic decision for the business" (p.224). Coca-Cola Foods is a strong supporter of mentoring and has successfully used mentoring for a number of years. Through their mentoring programme Coca-Cola Foods has increased its ability to achieve its competitive advantage through the use of effective human resource management and staff development. The mentoring programme at Coca-Cola Foods has been designed to "strengthen the link between development and business strategy" (Wachtel and Veale, 1998: 903-904).

The benefits to be derived from mentoring are diverse and have both short and long-term impacts on the employee and the organisation (see Table 3). The value of a given outcome and its impact (direct/indirect; short/long-term) will vary, and will be dependent upon the organisation's strategy. What the organisation must do is determine how to design and structure a mentoring programme to enhance the achievement of their business strategy and improve their competitiveness. In principle most managers would agree with the logic of this argument. However, achieving this is often a 'hit and miss affair'. In fact, Hansford, et al (2003:224) have argued that "A spontaneous 'spur of the moment' mentoring program risks at least some negative outcomes", such as increased staff turnover, the creation of gender or racial bias, the overburdening of mentors leading to declines in job performance, control difficulties, financial outlay, and the need for continual evaluation.

To avoid this, and improve the likelihood of a mentoring programme being effective designers should consider a number of factors that have the potential to limit or hinder their success. This includes lack of top management support, lack of clarity with regard to aims, roles, rules and expectations, lack of adequate or suitable training for mentors, poor selection and matching of personnel, an unnecessarily complex programme, lack of adequate monitoring and evaluation of the programme, conflicting work schedules of mentor and protege, lack of physical proximity, and unreasonable time demands (Orpen, 1997; Hansford, Ehrich and Tennent, 2003).

An effective mentoring programme can clearly develop a number of skills, competencies and abilities that are not able to be addressed through the use of more traditional, formal education programmes. The most valuable contribution that can be made by mentoring is the ability of the mentor to identify inadequacies or gaps in the knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies of their proteges in relation to the perceived needs of the business. This then allows for the updating of knowledge, managerial skills, or industry specific knowledge to be undertaken through various channels. In addition, involvement in a mentoring programme or relationship, introduces leaders/managers to the necessity of maintaining, updating and expanding specific skills to allow them to meet the changing requirements of their current and future positions.

3.3 Developing Managers Through Vocational Education and Training

The success or failure of an organisation is often credited to managers--thus it seems sensible that managers, as good leaders, need to continually upgrade their skills and those of their supervisors and the general workforce (Smith, 1993). However, managers are only one segment of the organisation and it is important to ensure that employees at all levels remain up to date; increasing skills, knowledge, and awareness of current techniques. Managers/leaders also need to have an understanding of the courses staff have attended, and the implications and changes, which may result from this up-skilling. For these reasons the Vocational Education and Training module needs to be seriously considered.

Unlike the two approaches to learning discussed above, Vocational education and training is a more structured and focused method of learning. Vocational education and training (VET) addresses the development and improvement of skills and knowledge for the specific purpose of improvement in an individual's capacity for productive work (Smith & Keating, 2003) and is generally addressed through courses and qualifications. VET, or TVET as it is known in some countries, is not a new concept, but has actually been around for some time. However, over the last few years there has been continuing change and major reforms addressing a wide range of issues (eg. competency-based training, training packages, user choice, and other contracted programmes) that have resulted in a resurgence of interest in VET programmes.

Smith & Keating (2003) believe that VET in contrast to general or professional education has a much closer association with:

* Industry: improving the capacity of people to do a job providing productivity gains for the company.

* A job or task: VET courses tend to be associated with specific areas of employment or tasks, which is different from courses that have been provided in higher education.

* Learning on and off the job: VET courses often combine elements of learning both on and/or off the job. Some are totally job or work based and others totally college or provide based.

* Skills based: The essential purpose of VET is to improve the individual's capacity to perform specified jobs or tasks (either broad or narrow).

The range of courses offered through VET can result in a better capacity to do a job, and greater personal and professional development. Courses are specifically designed to improve the individual's capacity to perform specific jobs or tasks (ie. particular skills that are needed for a given area of work), and are formalised into training package qualifications or courses. Apart from training for specific job skills VET also addresses the need for the development of key competencies. A consistent theme in recent key competency research is the need for extensive, ongoing professional development (Moy, 1999) and a range of courses can be used to assist with professional development by broadly preparing employees for future opportunities through the acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes.

In most countries VET occupies a particular sector of education and training. In Australia for instance, the VET sector is one of three education sectors, ie. VET, higher education and schools (see Table 4) and generally the institutions which provide these programmes are schools, universities, Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges, and other registered training organisations.

In 1996 OECD education ministers adopted the objective of lifelong learning and VET is ideal for this as people of all age groups can participate. According to Smith & Keating (2003) research conducted by NCVER in 2001 confirms that VET is relevant to, and is used by, people from all age groups to upgrade their skills and knowledge throughout their lives and therefore supports the concept of lifelong learning.

The focus of the VET system is to produce people with the skills needed by current and future organisations (such as communication, commitment, team building, and flexibility). To ensure this the skill profiles must be carefully and specifically planned (Smith & Keating, 2003). Interestingly, employers interviewed in a recent research project on employability skills considered the skills listed above as some of the most important and desirable (Smith & Comyn, 2003).

The VET method of learning offers flexibility, consideration of relevant skills needed by the market, and increased focus of on-the-job training, resulting in formal qualifications and an improved capacity to carry out productive work. Car manufacturer Ford Australia for example, believes that their education and training programmes have contributed to the success of the company, measured by positive trends in key performance indicators (KPI) (Miller, 1996 as cited in Waterhouse et al, 1999, pg 15).

Whilst the VET system does not claim to have all the answers, it is an important and valuable alternative that providing beneficial training and learning for all levels in the organisation. For example,

* Courses and qualifications for managers and supervisors

Certificate IV Frontline Management

Certificate of Attainment in Staff Counselling and Discipline

Certificate of Achievement in Team Co-ordination

Certificate IV in Workplace Training

* Courses and upgrading of skills and knowledge for the general workforce

Certificate in Food Handling

Occupational Health and Safety Accredited course for Workplace Committees

Certificate in Desk Top Publishing

The flexibility offered through VET is also a benefit for many organisations. Training in areas of Occupational Health and safety, Team building, and conflict resolution for example, can be offered as in-house programmes or through TAFE. This makes it a very valuable addition to the other management/leadership development approaches discussed here.

4. BUILDING A MODEL FOR FUTURE MANAGER/LEADER DEVELOPMENT

Within this paper, manager/leader development has been discussed from a broad perspective, and is seen to incorporate a plethora of different qualities; some of which will be more important to organisations and businesses than others. Likewise it has been, argued that manager/leader development can take many different forms. In this section it is intended to draw together the three conceptual approaches to learning that have been discussed above, and to emphasise the importance of developing tailored programmes that meet the specific needs of the organisation.

To provide the best, most comprehensive development for managers and leaders it is suggested that organisations consider the development of a comprehensive programme which incorporates a range of different offerings. Managers/leaders would benefit from this broader perspective because they have the opportunity to gain from all three types of development discussed, as they acquire different qualities through each approach. For example, to encourage effective workplace learning a development package might include programmes and activities that are in-house or external and use different approaches, such as Occupational health and safety (in-house), Knowledge of internal policies and procedures (in-house via mentoring), and Certificate IV in Workplace Training (VET--in-house or external) (see Figure 4).

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

In developing the comprehensive programme it is suggested that organisations follow five basic steps to building a management leadership programme specific to their needs. These include:

1. Conduct an environmental analysis--both internal and external

This would involve a full analysis of the organisations operating environment to identify its current position within this environment, its future aims and objectives, and how factors within and outside of the organisation might affect its ability to achieve the stated objectives.

2. Identify key qualities for managers and the organisations future (see Table 1)

From the information collected via the environmental analysis the organisation should be able to extrapolate a list of desirable qualities for their current and future managers. This list can be tailored very specifically to the needs of any organisation and can address identified shortcomings in current leader/managers.

3. Analyse/examine best way to develop these qualities by utilising different approaches (workplace learning, mentoring, and vocational education and training)

Having identified a list of desirable qualities it is then necessary to consider the best way of developing these qualities in leader/managers. This might involve the use of a combination of different learning activities or programmes; short term and long term, formal and informal. It is essential at this stage that careful consideration is given to all the options available.

4. Tailor package/collection of activities to meet organisational needs

This stage involves the compiling of a range of learning and development activities that will assist in the continued development of the organisations leader/managers; ensuring that they address the qualities identified in Step 2. The final package should be flexible enough to accommodate different levels of ability, learning styles and aptitudes.

5. Evaluation of programme

Having spent time, effort and resources on developing a tailored development programme the organisation must evaluate the success of their programme. Have the activities chosen helped to develop those qualities in managers/leaders identified in Step 2? Why? Why not? Were the qualities identified what was actually needed? Have the needs of the organisation changed? In this way the whole programme can be modified to better meet the changing needs of the organisation in relation to its changing environment.

The type of information required to adequately address Steps 1, 2 and 5 would suggest that these be conducted internally. Some of the factors examined through the environmental analysis and identification of desirable manager/leader qualities will be of a sensitive and confidential nature; whilst other factors can only be recognised by a person familiar with the internal workings of the organisation. Likewise, the evaluation of a management/leadership development programme (Step 5) will be more effective if conducted internally. However, examining the best way to develop desired qualities and tailoring an effective management/leader development package (Steps 3 and 4) might benefit from the assistance of a training specialist (internal or external).

To ensure the continued relevance of the manager/leader development programme it is considered essential that all steps be continually reviewed, assessed and amended if necessary.

5. CONCLUSION

The need to maintain the relevance of leader/manager development and meet the current and future needs of business, is a recurring theme in the literature; both past and contemporary. Attention has frequently been paid to the content and design of various management programmes, particularly university degrees, and criticisms have been numerous. Efforts to provide more effective management education have also been focused on the improvement and modification of formal management courses offered through higher education institutions and private colleges; all of which take a similar outlook.

Despite these many changes, answers to effective manager/leader development, that adequately meets the needs of business, and provides manager/leaders with the perceived qualities expected, are still being sought. In this paper three different perspectives of learning and development have been examined and an integrated approach proposed. In the past these learning/training strategies have been used independently to address specific, defined needs. The integration of these approaches will allow the design of organisation specific development programmes that more accurately meet the needs of the business. Through such an approach managers/leaders should be better equipped to meet the challenges of new and fluid business environments.

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(2) A person's range of information, awareness or familiarity gained by experience

(3) expertness, practised ability, facility in action, dexterity or tact

(4) capacity or power, cleverness, talent

(5) perceived as adequately qualified or capable

(6) Give intellectual, moral, and social instruction to a pupil especially as a formal and prolonged process, train or instruct for a particular purpose. The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995.

(7) Mentors are more experienced employees (and often managers) who guide, encourage and support younger or less experienced employees and proteges (Beardwell and Holden, 1994).

Pamela Mathews, Charles Stud University, Wagga Wagga, AUSTRALIA

Dawn Edwards, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, AUSTRALIA

TABLE 1: PERCEIVED QUALITIES OF FUTURE MANAGERS/LEADERS

Knowledge (2)    Skills (3)         Abilities (4)  Competencies (5)

* Theories       * Communication    * Conceptual   * Communication
* Concepts       * Technical        * Generalist   * Speed in
* Models         * Leading            ability        decision-making
* Budgeting        teams/Team       * Flexibility  * Strong
* Legal issues     building                          interpersonal
* Accounting     * Relationship     * Versatility    skills
* Technical        building/        * Mobility     * Identify
  specialist       networking                        environmental
* Resource       * Adaptability     * Vision         trends
  management     * Commitment       * Judgement    * Continuous
* Service        * Planning         * Initiative     improvement
* Goal setting/  * Coach            * Timeliness
  prioritising   * Performance      * Sensitivity
* Change           monitoring       * Humility
  manager        * Motivation
* Life-long      * Global mindset
  learner        * Trust
                 * Empower and
                   encourage
                 * Entrepreneurial

Source: adapted from ideas presented by Greenberg (1998), Shapiro
(1999), Kaydo (2000), Buhler (2000, 2002), Worrall and Cooper (2001)
and Dimitrijevic and Engel (2002).

TABLE 2: A SAMPLE OF MENTORING DEFINITIONS

Scholar           Definitions of mentoring

Carmin (1988)     Mentoring is a complex, interactive process occurring
                  between individuals of differing levels of experience
                  and expertise, which incorporates interpersonal or
                  psychological development, career and/or educational
                  development, and socialisation functions into the
                  relationship.

Appelbaum (2000)  Mentoring is a process of empowering individuals by
                  helping them capitalise on their personal and
                  professional strengths, giving them the support and
                  guidance to challenge themselves and take risks, and
                  helping them to find an appropriate and rewarding
                  career path.

TABLE 3: BENEFITS OF MENTORING IN THE WORKPLACE

Organisational Benefits         Mentor Benefits

--Increased productivity        --Satisfaction
--Better assessment of          --Improved enthusiasm
  individual performance        --Intrinsic rewards
--Improved management and       --A sense of being needed
  technical skills              --Professional recognition
--Latent talent discovered      --Opportunities to test new
--Leadership qualities refined    ideas
--Improved performance          --Improved ability to share
--Managers challenged to          experience and knowledge
  grow                          --Opportunities to reflect
--Better recruitment and          upon their roles
  retention of skilled staff    --Challenging discussion
--Improved communication          with people who have
--Establishes support             fresh perspectives and
  networks for employees          who are not already part of
--Improved delivery of            the organisational thinking
  service                       --Enhanced self--esteem
--Improved employee             --Enhanced communication
  commitment                      and leadership skills
--Retaining corporate           --Personal growth
  knowledge
--Enhancing organisational
  culture
--Recognition of individual
  contributions

Protege Benefits

--Access to the mentor's
  network
--Acquiring skills and
  knowledge
--Improved promotion
  opportunities and career
  mobility
--Status
--Obtaining a role model
--Insights into the culture
  and unwritten rules
--Supportive environment
--Development of
  professional self-
  confidence
--Recognition and
  satisfaction
--Empowerment
--Personal growth
--Improved communication
--Expanded vision

Sources: Alleman (cited in Carruthers, 1993:17); Carrell, Kuzmits, and
Elbert (1992:319); Spencer, (1996:8-9); and Lacey (1999:13-16),
Rolfe-Flett (2002:2-3).

TABLE 4: THE AUSTRALIAN QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORK

Secondary schools & Training  Vocational           Higher Education/
                                                   Tertiary

                              Education            Higher degrees
                                                   Degrees
                                                   Advanced Diploma
                                                   Diploma
                              Advanced Diploma
                              Diploma
                              Certificate I to IV
Senior Secondary
Certificate of Education

Source: Smith, E & Keating, J, (2003) From training reform to training
packages, Tuggerah, Social Science Press.