Creating incentives for waste reduction: state and local perspective.While waste reduction is the real solution to solid waste management, national per capita [Latin, By the heads or polls.] A term used in the Descent and Distribution of the estate of one who dies without a will. It means to share and share alike according to the number of individuals. discard rates and total waste disposed continue to steadily increase as shown in Figure 1 (1). Disposal costs are relatively inexpensive, pricing mechanisms are distorted and society is accustomed to the creed of "purchase, consume and dispose." The task of bringing about the changes necessary for economic and environmental sustainability are formidable (2). Some aspects of waste reduction can be addressed at the national level, such as labeling requirements or stopping the production or inappropriate use of nationally used materials such as lead, DDT DDT or 2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1,-trichloroethane, chlorinated hydrocarbon compound used as an insecticide. First introduced during the 1940s, it killed insects that spread disease and feed on crops. , PCB PCB: see polychlorinated biphenyl. PCB in full polychlorinated biphenyl Any of a class of highly stable organic compounds prepared by the reaction of chlorine with biphenyl, a two-ring compound. , or strontium strontium (strŏn`shēəm) [from Strontian, a Scottish town], a metallic chemical element; symbol Sr; at. no. 38; at. wt. 87.62; m.p. 769°C;; b.p. 1,384°C;; sp. gr. 2.6 at 20°C;; valence +2. 90 (3). Most waste reduction efforts, however, are best addressed at the state or local level. Selection of the most important combination of solid waste management techniques has traditionally rested with local government (4). This paper will look at the primary state and local options available. A Brief Look at the Bigger Picture Waste management plans must be affordable, provide adequate disposal capacity, properly allocate risks, and consider total environmental resource impacts (1). Following reduction, in order of priority, are product reuse reuse - Using code developed for one application program in another application. Traditionally achieved using program libraries. Object-oriented programming offers reusability of code via its techniques of inheritance and genericity. , materials recycling recycling, the process of recovering and reusing waste products—from household use, manufacturing, agriculture, and business—and thereby reducing their burden on the environment. , energy recovery, and landfilling. Reuse is generally more efficient than recycling, recycling incentives are at odds with energy recovery, and the existence of some 200 landfill superfund sites is a reminder of the potential hidden costs associated with landfilling (7,8). The reduction of wastes is accomplished by reduction of material usage, reuse of products, recycling where possible, and energy conservation or recovery. Any plans for control of air and water pollution would do well to include resource conservation. For example, recycling aluminum requires 95% less energy than use of raw materials. Recycled paper can conserve 75% of the energy and 50% of the water required by paper made from virgin timber (2). In general, recycling requires less energy than use of raw materials and saves 1.5 to 3 times its weight in new materials (5). The savings in resource use is aimed at reducing mining for raw materials or energy resources and reducing timber harvesting. These conservation efforts in turn result in reduced habitat destruction Habitat destruction is a process of land use change in which one habitat-type is removed and replaced with another habitat-type. In the process of land-use change, plants and animals which previously used the site are displaced or destroyed, reducing biodiversity. and an improved relationship with the planet's resources and ecosystems. As a general rule, subsidizing an activity produces more of it and taxing the activity produces less of it. Currently depletion of natural resources is subsidized sub·si·dize tr.v. sub·si·dized, sub·si·diz·ing, sub·si·diz·es 1. To assist or support with a subsidy. 2. To secure the assistance of by granting a subsidy. and work is taxed. Pricing mechanisms and marketing practices currently discriminate against waste reduction (2). For example, the U.S. Forest Service, manager of 22% of the nation's timberlands, continues to sell timber below cost. This leads to the depletion of wildlife habitat, continues our reliance on virgin materials, and shrinks the market for recyclable paper. Subsidized loans for power plant construction and pollution control equipment masks the true cost of energy production. If the price of energy directly reflected the cost of subsidized loans along with extraction and depletion allowances depletion allowance In tax law, the deductions from gross income allowed investors in exhaustible commodities (such as minerals, oil, or gas) for the depletion of the deposits. , energy users surely would have opted for conservation measures long ago. Simply put, there is a general lack of factoring into market economics the full life-cycle and environmental costs of production. These costs are largely hidden from American consumers (6). In Michigan (and the U.S. on average), 90% of waste is landfilled, despite the estimate that 70% to 90% of it can be reused or recycled (2). Figure 2 (1) gives examples of recycle rates for various recyclables. Interstate commerce interstate commerce In the U.S., any commercial transaction or traffic that crosses state boundaries or that involves more than one state. Government regulation of interstate commerce is founded on the commerce clause of the Constitution (Article I, section 8), which laws create a significant disincentive dis·in·cen·tive n. Something that prevents or discourages action; a deterrent. disincentive Noun something that discourages someone from behaving or acting in a particular way Noun 1. for local waste reduction since any landfill space conserved can simply be replaced with imported out-of-county wastes. However, disposal is the least environmentally desirable solution and source reduction is the most desirable solution. The solution is to create appropriate incentives to move the process in the right direction. Industrial waste comes from scrap and process wastes. Approximately 90% of the scrap is already recycled. Process wastes have a low reuse rate and constitutes approximately 67% of the total national non-hazardous waste stream. Reduction of this waste source is not given much attention by industry or government. There is no short-term pay-back, and there is a general lack of technology, assistance, or incentive. Figure 3 shows the industries that account for the national nonhazardous industrial waste stream (5). State Level Options The "reduce, reuse, recycle" slogan is not "high tech" but represents a relatively new, common-sense approach to environmental protection (9). Michigan's goal is to reduce land disposal by 80% to 90% by the year 2005 (10). If incineration incineration the act of burning to ashes. continues to fall into disfavor, the policy will have to be revised to increase the aggressiveness of other program components. Southeast Michigan Southeast Michigan, also called Southeastern Michigan, is a region in the Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan that is home to a majority of the state's businesses and industries, and is home to slightly over half the state's population. Council of Governments in 1990 reported that solid waste minimization and market development for recyclables are key components of solid waste strategy (11). Reduce: Municipal Solid Waste “Municipal waste” redirects here. For other uses, see Municipal waste (disambiguation). Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a waste type that includes predominantly household waste (domestic waste) with sometimes the addition of commercial wastes collected by a The challenge is to discourage use of wasteful products and packaging. Local governments typically have little, if any, control over products manufactured for national market; therefore, most attempts have been to influence demand. Michigan's goal is to reduce the waste stream by 8% to 12% (10). Figure 4 shows Wayne County's solid waste streams. Only four major avenues have been identified to obtain municipal solid waste source reduction: * Financial Disincentives This option has the best chance for making substantial, rapid changes in disposal habits. Levying a substantial surcharge An overcharge or additional cost. A surcharge is an added liability imposed on something that is already due, such as a tax on tax. It also refers to the penalty a court can impose on a fiduciary for breaching a duty. on landfilled solid waste is an important but unimplemented component of the Michigan plan. One-way containers can also be taxed. A charge-per-bag or "pay-as-you throw" local collection fee is perhaps the most effective strategy (2). Combined with a low or zero charge for the collection of recyclables, this option has powerful potential. The revenues generated by these options could fund other components of solid waste programs. Despite high desirability, however, this option may be politically difficult to implement. * Consumer Education Posters and special events in stores have received mixed results and are resource intensive. Currently attempts are being made to implement a standard "green label" that takes into account product durability, re-usability, and recyclability. Differing definitions of recyclable materials make the process complex and the procedure takes considerable time and energy. Education is the focus of Michigan's waste reduction program. * Product Restrictions or Bans These acts are controversial but effective at the national level. Examples include lead-based paints and Coca Cola's elimination of the plastic can. A state ban may have little effect on products designed for national markets. * Product Standards These may include minimum usable life span or packaging standards. The biodegradable biodegradable /bio·de·grad·a·ble/ (-de-grad´ah-b'l) susceptible of degradation by biological processes, as by bacterial or other enzymatic action. bi·o·de·grad·a·ble adj. 6-pack carrier, the packaging of compact disks, and McDonald's elimination of chlorofluorocarbons chlorofluorocarbons (klōr'əfl  r`əkär'bənz, klôr'–) (CFCs), organic compounds that contain carbon, chlorine, and fluorine atoms. from food containers
are examples. Again, local standards have little effect on products
designed for national markets.
Reduce: Industrial Non-hazardous Waste No programs have been documented. Energy conservation would reduce the power-related ash component of the waste stream, and increased recycling of paper, wood, and steel would reduce the related components of the industrial waste stream. Reuse Reuse can be practiced by individuals, government, and business alike. Michigan's goal for reuse is 4% to 6% of the solid waste stream to be accomplished primarily through educational efforts. Michigan allows a lower deposit fee for refillable containers (10). Recycle Recycling, the third most desirable conservation approach, has received more attention than source reduction or reuse. A survey in TIME magazine's 1989 "Planet of the Year" issue indicates that 95% of the public is willing to separate their trash; however, recycling suffers from many problems. The main problem is erratic markets. Market volatility is the bane BANE. This word was formerly used to signify a malefactor. Bract. 1. 2, t. 8, c. 1. of secondary markets and is a serious disincentive to recycling efforts. Maintaining high citizen awareness and participation rates are important, but recycling without a market is meaningless. Waste Management Inc.'s slogan "If you're not buying recycled products, you're not recycling" is right on target. Simply increasing recycled material supply without stimulating demand leads to glutted glut v. glut·ted, glut·ting, gluts v.tr. 1. To fill beyond capacity, especially with food; satiate. 2. To flood (a market) with an excess of goods so that supply exceeds demand. markets and depressed market Depressed market Market in which supply overwhelms demand, leading to weak and lower prices. prices. In addition, there are technological problems in recycling some materials such as multiple material containers; economic problems from high volume, low weight materials such as plastic containers; the legal problem of flow control; and concept problems when it takes more energy to recycle a material than is environmentally desirable. Thirty-one states have adopted one or more recycling strategies, and Michigan has adopted a multi-faceted approach. While Seattle, Wash., a stand-out success story, has attained a 50% recycling rate and is headed towards 60%, Michigan is more in line with the national situation with a goal to recycle 20% to 30% of the solid waste stream (10). The major components of recycling options are as follows (12): * Procurement The fancy word for "purchasing." The procurement department within an organization manages all the major purchases. Policies This is arguably ar·gu·a·ble adj. 1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved. 2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. the most important component of any comprehensive recycling strategy. Governments at all levels consume one-fifth of the country's gross national product (6). By giving preference to recycled goods, public agencies can use their buying power Buying Power The money an investor has available to buy securities. In a margin account, the buying power is the total cash held in the brokerage account plus maximum margin available. Also referred to as "Excess Equity. to create a tremendous demand for recycled products. Michigan has a 10% price preference for recycled materials and is phasing in a policy that requires a minimum percent of all supplies to contain recycled materials. By the year 2000, 85% of paper purchases must contain 85% post-consumer recycled paper (10). Minnesota has created an environmentally- aware purchasing checklist for purchases. Kentucky has an environmental information database on products for government purchase. The U.S. General Services Administration The General Services Administration (GSA) was established by section 101 of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949 (40 U.S.C.A. § 751). The GSA sets policy for and manages government property and records. has developed an interim rule requiring environmental considerations as part of procurement procedures (14). The policy can be extended to items such as glass in road sub-base and rubber from tires in asphalt asphalt (ăs`fôlt, –fălt), brownish-black substance used commonly in road making, roofing, and waterproofing. Chemically, it is a natural mixture of hydrocarbons. . * Tax Incentives Granting tax incentives for the purchase of recycled equipment encourages its use. New Jersey refunds a portion of its landfill surcharge to communities in the form of tonnage TONNAGE, mar. law. The capacity of a ship or vessel. 2. The act of congress of March 2, 1799, s. 64, 1 Story's L. U. S. 630, directs that to ascertain the tonnage of any ship or vessel, the surveyor, &c. grants for materials recycled (2). Businesses engaged in recycling are taxed at a lesser rate. Other options include taxing one-way containers, tax exemptions tax exemption, immunity from the requirement of paying taxes. Federal, state, and usually local law provide exemption from taxation for a wide variety of organizations, usually not-for-profit, such as churches, colleges, universities, health care providers, various for products with greater than 50% post-consumer waste Post-consumer waste is a waste type produced by the end consumer of a material stream; that is, where the waste-producing use did not involve the production of another product. , placing a tax on virgin materials usage, giving tax credits for recovered material use, and capital investment tax credits. In 1987, the Michigan Department of Natural Resources The Michigan Department of Natural Resources is the agency of the state of Michigan charged with maintaining natural resources such as state parks, state forests, and recreation areas. published a report covering this and other incentives (13). * Fees Florida charges manufacturers a fee of $.01 per item for containers that were not recycled at least 50% by 1992 and will charge $.02 per container if the recycling goal is not attained by 1995. Reduced transportation rates are levied if a vehicle is hauling recyclables. * Source Separation Components of source separation include curbside curb·side n. 1. The side of a pavement or street that is bordered by a curb. 2. A sidewalk. adj. Located, operating, or occurring at or along the sidewalk or curb: collection, drop-off centers, office paper recycling Paper recycling is the process of recovering waste paper and remaking it into new paper products. There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste. , multi-family collections, and regional recycling centers. Mandatory source separation can result in very high recycling rates. At a minimum, curbside collection is necessary to divert substantial percentages of municipal solid waste. Ongoing, intense public education and promotion are essential components for a successful program. * Deposit Programs Deposit programs are an effective approach; however, the many differing container shapes and sizes limit the feasibility of expanding the current program to include other container types. Expansion of Michigan's program to include additional container types is not now contemplated. * Disposal Restrictions Disposal restrictions are an effective legislative tool but one which can cause new problems. For example, the 24 states with landscape waste disposal bans have resulted in an increased number of compost compost, substance composed mainly of partly decayed organic material that is applied to fertilize the soil and to increase its humus content; it is often used in vegetable farming, home gardens, flower beds, lawns, and greenhouses. facilities and subsequent closures due to odor problems. Comprising up to 18% of the municipal waste stream, Michigan's goal is to eliminate landscaping wastes entirely from the waste stream. South Dakota South Dakota (dəkō`tə), state in the N central United States. It is bordered by North Dakota (N), Minnesota and Iowa (E), Nebraska (S), and Wyoming and Montana (W). is imposing a ban on the disposal of glass, metal, plastic containers, and cardboard. Before imposing such a ban it would be wise to create a market. The material needs to go somewhere. * Labeling Requirements Labeling plastics as to the type of composition theoretically improves the recyclability of a container. The economics and technological problems of plastic recycling Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastics and reprocessing the material into useful products, sometimes completely different from their original state. ; as mentioned earlier however, limit market incentives. * Education Education is an essential part of all components of solid waste policy. It must be extensive, consistent, and continuous. Curricular materials for schools have been developed. Education must not only focus on collection but must promote the purchase and use of recycled products. Increased consumer demand will influence manufacturers and supplies at the retail level. Michigan has developed material for use by local organizations and makes it available at no charge. * Grants and Loans Michigan has utilized the Clean Michigan Fund to conduct feasibility studies The analysis of a problem to determine if it can be solved effectively. The operational (will it work?), economical (costs and benefits) and technical (can it be built?) aspects are part of the study. Results of the study determine whether the solution should be implemented. and the Solid Waste Alternatives Program grants to fund program development. Funds from a landfill surcharge, if implemented, may be made available to local program applications meeting guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. . Options for Local Actions Options available to a local unit of government can be divided into four categories; program development, financial incentive/disincentive, internal, and legal development options. The internal options and lobby positions can be implemented almost immediately. The other options may require considerable discussion and consensus building, and most can be included in solid waste management plan updates. All are within the power of local government to develop and implement. Program Development Options * Eliminate the hidden costs of disposal by implementing a pay-per-bag waste collection policy throughout the district, especially if waste reduction goals have not been met. * Insure that all municipalities expand recycling or other waste-reduction options. This is a county level option. * Make curbside collection of recyclables mandatory in communities once market development has occurred, if recycling goals have not been met. Make participation mandatory. This is a county level option. * Consider implementing disposal bans for such items as tires, iron, plastic, paper, etc. * Dramatically increase waste reduction and energy conservation educational efforts. Financial Incentive/Disincentive Options * Implement a landfill disincentive surcharge. Wayne County's fee could be significantly greater than the current tipping fee of $0.11 per cubic yard. Include all landfills, including special-purpose landfills. Use the monies to pay for the other aspects of the solid waste reduction effort. * Aggressively implement a market development strategy to utilize recovered materials. * Provide tax incentives for recycling industries, and lobby for reduced transport levies for vehicles carrying recycled materials. * Make grants available to local groups or business to encourage waste reduction programs and procedures * Lobby for the elimination of extraction allowances, depletion allowances, and subsidized loans that hide the true cost of using virgin materials and excessive energy during production with the goal of at least providing a level playing field See net neutrality. for product pricing. Internal Options * Develop and implement a procurement policy preference for recovered materials: and institute a policy of considering environmental aspects of product development, use, and disposal when making purchases. Make use of recovered materials a standard component of construction contracts. * Develop an energy conservation policy and guidelines regarding the use of existing buildings, cars, and other facilities or equipment and the reuse/recycling practices of county operations. Legal Development Option * Develop an energy conservation policy or ordinance A law, statute, or regulation enacted by a Municipal Corporation. An ordinance is a law passed by a municipal government. A municipality, such as a city, town, village, or borough, is a political subdivision of a state within which a municipal corporation has been recommending or requiring minimum building codes with respect to materials' usage and energy conservation throughout the jurisdiction * Re-evaluate zoning laws and transportation policies with respect to their impact upon transportation energy costs. References 1. U.S. EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid. EPA abbr. eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic. EPA, n. (1988), Characterization of Municipal Solid Waste in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , 1960-2000, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, Washington, DC, March 1988. 2. Pollock, Cynthia (1987), "Realizing Recyling's Potential," State of the World, Worldwatch Institute The Worldwatch Institute is a globally-focused environmental research organization. Based in Washington, D.C., the institute was founded in 1974 by Lester Brown. Christopher Flavin is the current president. , ed.: Norton. 3. Wann, David (1988), "Biologic," Environmental Action, Nov/Dec 1988. 4. Hickman, H. Lanier, Jr. (1993), "Waste Management," Issues in Science and Technology. 5. U.S. EPA, Report to Congress, Solid Waste Disposal in the United States, Vol. 2. 6. Griffin, Rodman (1992), "Garbage Crisis," CQ Researcher 2(11), March 20, 1992. 7. Jones, Randy (1992), "Burning Question," Chronicle-Herald, Halifax, Canada, April 1992. 8. Richards, Bill, (1988), "Burning Issue: Energy from Garbage Loses Some Promise as Wave of Future in Waste Disposal," Wall Street Journal, June 16, 1988. 9. Hynes, Patricia (1990), Earth Right. 10. Mich. Dept. of Natural Resources (1988), "Michigan Solid Waste Policy," June 1988. 11. SE Mich. Council of Gov't (1990), "Solid Waste Management Policies for Southeast Michigan," June 1990. 12. Andress, Carol (1989), Waste Not, Want Not: State and Federal Roles in Source Reduction and Recycling of Solid Waste, Northeast-Midwest Institute, Washington, DC. 13. Mich. Dept. of Natural Resources (1987), Options to Overcome Barriers to Recycling. 14. Darcey, Sue (1994), "Defining Environmentally Preferable Products, World Wastes, April 1994, p. 51. David Plueddemann, M.S., P.E., MPH, R.S., Asst. Section Chief, Wayne Co. Health Division, 5454 S. Venoy, Wayne, MI 48184 |
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