Create rewarding circle times by working with toddlers, not against them.

The morning sun is shining through the window, making bright rectangular patterns on the rug in the toddler room. Two teachers and the eight 1- and 2-year-olds in their care are enjoying each other's company as the toddlers explore the room. Encouraged by one teacher's example, Trevor and Lucy are making shapes with their bodies and watching their shadows on the carpet; meanwhile, Tanisha, Jack, and Paola pretend to go to the grocery store and return home with purchases, over and over again. "Bye-bye," they call to the other teacher as, decked out in a variety of hats and scarves, they carry their grocery bags across the room. "Hi, we're home!" they announce when they return. The other toddlers scattered around the room play contentedly.

A similar feeling of contentment permeates a second toddler room at a child care center down the street, where 10 children in the same age range are starting their day. One teacher has arranged a variety of simple puzzles on a table; having worked his way through all of the puzzles once, Raquan has started over again. Under the second teacher's watchful eye, four more toddlers scribble enthusiastically on the butcher paper that is taped to another table. Saul is a little out of sorts because Tierra won't give up his favorite push toy, but he is keeping it together, comforting himself by sucking his thumb and sitting on a teacher's lap.

The experiences of both teachers and children in these two rooms are about to diverge sharply, however. It is circle time.

While teachers in both classrooms care deeply for children and work hard to provide experiences that are intended to promote optimal development, the teachers in the different classrooms have different sets of assumptions about what kinds of activities are most appropriate and valuable for toddlers. When we consider the toddlers' experiences in each of these circle times, as well as what we know about toddler development, it is evident that the methods used by teachers in the first classroom are more rewarding and less frustrating for both adults and children. The second classroom may sound unusually negative to some readers, but it is quite typical of many toddler classrooms observed by the authors. When presented with a more appropriate way of thinking about toddler development and curriculum, teachers like those in the second classroom often find themselves motivated by their genuine concern for toddlers to change their practices.

Classroom 1. Eventually, the teachers notice that the shopping play is winding down. One teacher encourages the children to put their props into a large laundry basket. When Paola insists on keeping her hat, the teacher allows her to do so, commenting, "You really like that one, don't you." The second teacher then goes to the cozy book corner that doubles as a gathering place for the group and turns on a recording of a familiar "Good Morning" song. Four toddlers hurry over to join her. Tanisha pulls at the teacher's shirt, cups her hands together and makes a buzzing sound. "Oh, you want the bumblebee song," says the teacher. "We'll do that one first."

When the teacher sits down on the carpet, the children follow suit. As she leads the toddlers through several lively songs with fingerplays, two more toddlers join the group. Some are singing and accomplishing most of the motions smoothly, others join in intermittently, and the two youngest toddlers watch intently. In the block area, Trevor is absorbed in laying some blocks end to end and rolling a small truck over them. Midori, who seems a little tired, shows no inclination to join the group; instead, she hugs a stuffed dog and watches the singers with interest from a soft chair in the dramatic play area. The other teacher keeps an eye on Trevor, Midori, and the singing children as she moves quietly around the room, picking up the worst of the clutter. The atmosphere in the room continues to be relaxed and positive.

Classroom 2. Circle time is slower to start in this classroom. Promptly at 9:00 a.m., one teacher collects the puzzles; Raquan seems a little stunned when his puzzle disappears suddenly. Laquita is less accepting when the other teacher collects the crayons and rips the butcher paper off the table; she screams as the purple crayon is pried from her fist. "Hush, now, we're going to have circle time; you know you like that," the teacher tells her. Simultaneously, the other teacher announces loudly, "It's cleanup time, boys and girls. Let's get ready for circle time. Emily and Dakota, you need to clean up all that stuff you got out in housekeeping." She moves around the room, collecting the materials that have been scattered throughout the room during the early morning.

Upon hearing the words "circle time," four toddlers, including Emily and Dakota, immediately run over to the block area where circle time is held. Emily chants, "Circle time, circle time!" and begins to jump up and down. The other children follow suit gleefully until two toddlers accidentally crash into each other and fall down. David bumps his head on the block shelf and begins to cry loudly. Saul, who now loses his spot in the teacher's lap, begins to cry again. Another teacher scoops him up and carries him over to the block area on her way to check on David. She sets Saul down (to even louder protests), comforts David (who is not badly hurt), and places all the nearby toddlers on their "spots" for circle time. "Stay there and wait for your friends," she instructs them as she leaves to round up more toddlers. Saul is still crying.

Meanwhile, the teacher who announced cleanup time notices that Emily and Dakota have not picked up the housekeeping area. She calls them back. "You know we have to clean up before circle time," she reminds them as they join her in putting the pots and pans back in the oven. The other children, who had been settled for circle time, now begin to pull the blocks off the shelf. Whenever the teachers get one child settled in the circle, it seems that another one has wandered away.

Flexible Transitions Reduce Frustration

The first noticeable differences between the toddler circle times in the two classrooms concern the way in which the teachers managed the transition. Differences are evident in the timing and pace of the transition, in teacher expectations about cleaning up, and in their assumptions about whether all children must be present before the activity can begin. In Classroom 1, the teachers watch for signals from the children that a new activity would be welcomed. One teacher helps children to participate successfully in cleanup time by providing a large container for them to fill, an activity that is responsive to typical toddler interests and allows much of the cleanup to be accomplished quickly. The other teacher begins the circle time activity as soon as several toddlers are present, allowing the other children to join as they are ready. This prompt yet flexible transition, combined with the teacher's constant presence in the circle time area, minimizes waiting and greatly reduces the likelihood of undesirable behavior.

The teachers in Classroom 2, however, use the clock to guide their transition to circle time even though the children remain engaged in other activities. Their assumption is that the child-directed activities, while fun for toddlers, are less important than the teacher-directed, structured activities. They also expect children to return all materials to their proper places and sit down in their designated spots before circle time can begin. While such expectations may be appropriate for many preschool-age children, they are not appropriate for toddlers. As Gonzalez-Mena and Eyer (2001) point out, expecting toddlers to behave like preschoolers makes toddlers look incompetent and frustrates teachers. Combined with the loud announcement of circle time and the lack of an ongoing teacher presence in the gathering place, these unrealistic expectations increase the likelihood of problematic behavior as the toddlers wait for circle time to begin.

Other factors help to maintain a positive atmosphere in Classroom 1 during the transition. The teachers chose a quiet play area (the book corner) rather than an active play area (blocks) as their gathering place. This selection reinforces the idea of circle time as a time to settle down a bit. The smaller group size, eight toddlers as opposed to 10 in Classroom 2, makes it easier for teachers to maintain effective supervision of all children while remaining flexible about participation in circle time. Most important, the teachers in Classroom 1 treat children with respect and are sensitive to their feelings, as illustrated by allowing Paola to keep her hat and Midori to rest with her stuffed dog. In contrast, in Classroom 2 the teacher insists that Laquita relinquish her purple crayon immediately and does not respond to Saul's distress during the transition. Such a lack of sensitivity to toddler interests and feelings may interfere with the toddlers' ability to participate constructively in subsequent activities, as is seen in the next segment.

Classroom 1. Back in the first classroom, the teacher concludes the singing, as she does every day, with another "Good Morning" song in which she greets each child by name. When she greets Trevor, he looks up from his road-building and decides to join the group. Midori waves her hand slightly from across the room when she hears her name, but stays put. The second teacher joins the circle, keeping Midori in her line of sight.

Next on the agenda is a read-aloud involving a colorful picture book about a cat exploring its neighborhood. "Remember the cat that visited us yesterday on the playground?" the teacher prompts. "Yes, yes," reply several children. "He was black," adds Lucy. "Yes, that was a big black cat," the teacher responds. "The cat in this book is spotted." She begins to read the book, pausing to show each picture and respond to the toddlers' comments. The children move closer to her, and some rise up on their knees, touching the pictures. The teachers watch to make sure that no one is being crowded out and that everyone can see as the story continues.

At this point, Jack seems to be losing interest. He notices a lion puppet on the shelf beside him, puts it on his hand, and makes it "eat" Lucy's arm. Lucy giggles. The second teacher moves behind Jack and whispers, "Do you want to listen to the story or do you want to go and play with the puppets over there?" gesturing toward another part of the room. Lucy, hearing this, says, "Puppets," and picks up a frog puppet. Jack follows her across the room to a spot near where Midori sits. They bounce their puppets up and down, making frog and lion noises. Midori gets up and adds her stuffed dog to the chorus, further increasing the noise level from the housekeeping area. The second teacher leaves the story circle and joins the puppet players, encouraging them to make their animal friends whisper. The remaining toddlers continue to listen to the story.

Classroom 2. In the second classroom, the two teachers have finally gathered all of the toddlers for circle time. One teacher sits down in her chair and begins the class "Good Morning" song. This song requires each child to greet his or her neighbor with a handshake, which several of the older toddlers do enthusiastically. Some of the other children do not respond when prompted to shake hands, however. Each time the second teacher gives them hand-overhand assistance, the song pauses. Laquita absolutely refuses to shake Tierra's hand, pulling both hands away when the teacher approaches. "Don't you want to say good morning to your friend Tierra?" asks the teacher, as she puts the two girls' hands together. Laquita pulls away and throws herself on the floor face down. "You know that's not the way we act in circle time," says the teacher, moving on to the next child. The remaining songs proceed more smoothly and Laquita soon resumes her participation. However, three of the younger toddlers start to wander away repeatedly. The singing is interrupted several times as both teachers attempt to keep the children in the circle.

The book being read in class this morning is about fall, which is the theme of the week. Images of colorful trees, baskets of fruit and vegetables, and cornstalks stacked together in fields fill the pages. The oak leaves outside the center's window are deep green, however, and most of the children in this urban setting have never seen a cornfield. Emily recognizes a pumpkin in one picture, however, and pulls up on the teacher's knees to point it out. "There's a punkin! Where's the face?" she exclaims. "Sit down, Emily," says the teacher who is reading. "It's my turn to talk now." Intrigued, Laquita has popped up to look at the pumpkin, and the other teacher reprimands her: "Laquita, you're just not following the rules today." Laquita throws herself on the floor again when the teacher attempts to sit her down. "OK, that's it, Laquita. Go to time out," orders the teacher who is reading. "You've interrupted our circle time too much." Laquita does not budge, and the second teacher carries her screaming to a chair in the corner.

Flexible and Reasonable Expectations

The teachers' expectations of how the children should behave are very different in these two classrooms. In the first classroom, when Jack and Lucy are no longer able to attend to the story, they are allowed to leave the area and are encouraged to engage in quiet activity. Whereas older toddlers can be encouraged to participate longer in group times through active, hands-on activities, younger toddlers have unpredictable attention spans and may not be able to sustain attention to adult-directed activities for prolonged periods of time (Stonehouse, 1990). Rather than punishing these children (who are only behaving as expected for their developmental levels), the teachers alter their practices to accommodate the needs of the children. One teacher's quick response--redirecting the children who are no longer attending--also minimizes disruptions for the second teacher as she leads the group.

The teachers in Classroom 2, however, expect each toddler to participate fully. Such a philosophy can create problems when a toddler's developmental need to be self-assertive conflicts with adult demands and restrictions (Snow, 1998). For example, Laquita continues to assert her independence. She first refuses to shake hands during the song, then she throws herself on the floor and refuses to go to time out. This event could have been prevented if Laquita were not forced to be involved in the activity in a way that she did not wish. Once the power struggle was engaged, the inappropriate expectation of sitting quietly and not moving closer to get a better look at the book only added fuel to the fire. Gestwicki (1999) states that a good way to prevent temper tantrums is to avoid frustrating incidents by maintaining appropriate expectations for toddler behavior. She states that it is best to avoid punishing tantrums with isolation, recommending quiet verbalizations in a calm manner as a better alternative. These strategies would have helped Laquita to participate more positively.

Instruction Grounded in Child Experiences

Piaget (1962) theorized that young children learn through concrete experiences. It follows that to best facilitate learning, we should ground learning in children's daily lives. The book that is used during circle time in Classroom 1 reflects the children's experiences. The teacher reminds the children of the cat they saw yesterday. She helps them make connections between the language in the book and their own experiences of seeing a cat. As the story unfolds, she then responds to the children's comments and allows the toddlers to explore the book by touching. Each child's input is valued. The purpose seems to be for the children to enjoy the literacy experience and make associations between the language of the story and their real-life experience.

In Classroom 2, the purpose seems quite different. Toddlers are expected to learn and demonstrate group skills that appear to be more appropriate for older children. While children do need practice to learn these skills gradually over time, group time with toddlers should focus more on making these experiences pleasurable (Gestwicki, 1999). Valuing and responding positively to children's input is one way to do this. When Emily makes a comment on the book, however, she is reprimanded for speaking out about what she sees. More important, the teacher passes over an opportunity for expanding learning when she does not respond to Emily's question about the pumpkin. The teacher seems to assume that her learning goals are more important than any question a child might have. Not only are the children's questions and input ignored, but the book itself is far removed from the experiences of the toddlers in this urban center. Such a book might be more appropriate for these children after a field trip to a farm. Giving toddlers tangible encounters with real objects best facilitates their learning and interest, as seen in the next segment.

Classroom 1. By 9:15, circle time in the first classroom is coming to a close. One teacher has brought in a collection of cat artifacts for the children to examine: laminated photographs and prints, carved wooden cats, soft stuffed cats, and even a small china cat that this teacher keeps on her lap for the toddlers to touch. "We have to be very careful with this one," she explains. "It can break." Midori, who has finally decided to join the circle, looks intently at the china cat and strokes it gently with one finger. "Like my cat," she says softly. Most of the other toddlers have moved to other activities by now, and Trevor is looking up at the shelf where snacks are kept. The other teacher starts helping the toddlers wash their hands, and the teacher who was leading circle time tells Midori that it is time to put away the special cats. "We can get them out again after nap," she says. Trevor is whimpering, "'Nack, 'nack"; other than that, the room remains calm.

Classroom 2. By 9:15, the teacher in the second classroom is only halfway through the book and her audience keeps trying to escape. She puts the book down abruptly and announces, "OK, boys and girls, now it's time to practice our colors." After working with the second teacher to bring back all but two of the toddlers, she holds up a laminated yellow leaf shape and asks, "What color is this?" "It's a leaf!" calls Laquita, who has made her way back to the circle. "Yes, but what color is it?" asks the teacher. No one answers. "It's yellow," she supplies, and then holds up an orange leaf. "What color is this?" "Yellow!" yells Raquan. Three toddlers are now lying on the floor, three are still watching the teacher with the leaves, and four have scattered to other parts of the room. "Boys and girls," wonders the teacher, "what is the matter with you? You know you are supposed to stay on your spots!"

"It's time for a snack anyway," announces the other teacher. "Snack! Snack!" yell Emily and Dakota, leading the charge to the snack tables. "Boys and girls, you know we have to wash our hands first," admonishes one teacher. "NO!" announces Laquita, seating herself firmly at the table with her arms folded. "Snack NOW!" Several other children follow suit. Both teachers sigh and mentally gird themselves for the next battle.

Materials and Expectations

Toddlers engage in learning through physical manipulation of objects. They especially need materials that encourage action (Machado & Botnarescue, 2001). The teacher in Classroom 1 takes these typical toddler characteristics into account by providing multiple concrete examples of cats for the children to explore and manipulate. She recognizes that the children must be allowed to touch as well as look at the cats. Even the china cat can be touched, albeit with adult supervision. In this fashion, the toddlers' learning and enjoyment both are maximized.

In Classroom 2, on the other hand, the teacher provides a limited number of props (in the form of laminated leaf shapes), which the children are not allowed to manipulate. The focus of the activity, identifying colors, may be within the cognitive reach of the oldest children in the group. Even for the oldest children, however, the use of rote memorization as the primary teaching strategy is inappropriate. The children's responses show that the task is not a good match for their abilities and interests. The teacher's approach is to tell the children the correct answer, but toddlers do not learn best by being told things. Toddlers learn best through active exploration (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2001). An effective alternative to this activity could be conducted later in the fall when the leaves in the play yard change color. The toddlers could explore the leaves and discuss their characteristics, including colors.

Closure

O'Brien (1997) emphasizes that transitions from activity to activity must be planned so that toddlers remain involved and are not kept waiting with nothing to do. By keeping this advice in mind, the teachers in Classroom 1 smoothly manage closure of circle time and transition to snack time. The two teachers work well together to begin the hand washing routine with some children while others are still involved in circle time or other activities. Only Trevor, who has already anticipated that snack time is the next item on the agenda, is unhappy with the perceived delay.

In contrast, the teacher in Classroom 2 abruptly halts circle time at several points. Although she is sensitive to the fact that she has lost the children's attention, the earlier interruptions and the abrupt transitions from book to leaf activity to snack time do not help the toddlers maintain active involvement. When the second teacher announces that it is time for a snack, the children are immediately ready for it and are not engaged in anything else. Teachers might have prevented the rush to the snack table and the power struggles that ensued by announcing the need to wash hands first and then announcing snack time. Or, one teacher could have engaged some of the children in a favorite activity while the other teacher began the hand washing routine.

Conclusion

Many toddler teachers do not include circle time in their daily schedules. The circle time in Classroom 1, however, is implemented in the same way that any planned activity would be implemented in a high-quality toddler program: by starting the activity, making it look fun, and allowing interested children to join (O'Brien, 1997). It is in many ways more similar to other toddler activities than to circle time in preschool classrooms. This is as it should be because the goals of circle time are different for toddlers and preschoolers. For preschoolers, teacher goals for circle time often relate to teaching concepts or group social skills. For toddlers, the focus is more on the pleasurable aspects of group interaction. Even though many toddlers are still learning to manage interactions with just one other person, circle times that are designed especially for toddlers offer unique opportunities for these youngsters to enjoy being part of a larger group and to learn from each other. The children's responses to the songs and fingerplays in Classroom 1 illustrate this concept perfectly.

Events in these two hypothetical classrooms highlight issues that teachers must consider if they choose to implement circle time with toddlers. Appropriate developmental expectations are critical. Toddlers should not be expected to sit quietly for extended periods of time. Instead, they should be encouraged to participate at the levels determined by their individual development. Circle times should be short and transitions should be flexible to accommodate limited attention spans and toddlers' tendency to be influenced more by the immediate context than by rules or social expectations (O'Brien, 1997). The teachers in Classroom 1 illustrate these appropriate expectations beautifully, and all children eventually do participate in circle time at some level. The events in Classroom 2 demonstrate what can happen when inappropriate expectations are set. Power struggles ensue and group time becomes a trial for both the teachers and the children.

In addition, the content of circle time should include activities that interest toddlers, such as physical activity or concrete experiences. Toddlers are constantly testing the physical properties of their own bodies, and so are naturally interested in activities that allow them to continue physical experimentation. Language is also beginning to emerge in toddlers. Toddlers' use of language should be encouraged and should be grounded in their everyday experiences. Incorporation of objects from the classroom or other familiar environments helps toddlers connect language to the world around them.

Overall, the teachers in Classroom 1 make circle time a pleasant experience for the children and for themselves by taking typical toddler development into account and remaining flexible. An atmosphere of teamwork among teachers and toddlers exists as everyone contributes to the success of the activities, rather than working at cross-purposes. The overall tone of the classroom remains positive, whereas the tone of Classroom 2 deteriorates as the adults continue to impose an agenda that is not well matched to the children's needs and interests. Although the teachers in Classroom 2 probably believe they are doing what is necessary to teach important concepts, their intrusive behavior, criticism, and directiveness during circle time are likely to be ineffective and even have negative consequences. Research indicates that such teaching approaches tend to discourage mastery behavior, whereas positive suggestions, modeling, and timely information are more likely to motivate children to further efforts (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

It must be acknowledged that toddler classrooms in the real world rarely differ from one another as drastically as the two hypothetical classrooms described above. Even classrooms that regularly implement the positive practices illustrated by Classroom 1 experience days when chaos erupts or teachers and children seem to be at cross-purposes. It would also be a mistake to assume that teachers who conduct their classrooms as in Classroom 2 are harsh or uncaring. Their circle time practices are usually motivated by a genuine desire to help children learn. They are often sensitive and responsive to toddlers during free play and caregiving routines, and hence have generally positive relationships with the children. These positive attitudes and practices can form the foundation for a more appropriate approach to planned group activities.

With increased interest in early childhood programs at a national level and increased demands for accountability in education, even teachers in toddler programs may feel pressure to prepare children for eventual success in school. Those who lack education about toddler development and care may attempt to apply the preschool or elementary school models that they know best to younger age groups. Yet recent attempts to synthesize current knowledge about early development, care, and education invariably point to the importance of caring, responsive relationships between adults and young children as the essential foundation for future development in all domains (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2001; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Practices such as those illustrated in Classroom 2 can undermine such relationships in the name of better "education." High-quality toddler classrooms, as illustrated by Classroom 1, however, build relationships and provide rich learning experiences. Appropriate circle times for toddlers can be a part of this picture and can be satisfying to both teachers and children.

References

Bowman, B. T., Donovan, M. S., & Burns, M. S. (Eds.). (2001). Eager to learn: Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Frost, J. L., Wortham, S., & Reifel, S. (2001). Play and child development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.

Gestwicki, C. (1999). Developmentally appropriate practice: Curriculum and development in early education (2nd ed.). Albany, NY: Delmar.

Gonzalez-Mena, J., & Eyer, D. W. (2001). Infants, toddlers, and caregivers (5th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Machado, J. M., & Botnarescue, H. M. (2001). Student teaching: Early childhood practicum guide. Albany, NY: Delmar.

O'Brien, M. (1997). Inclusive child care for infants and toddlers: Meeting individual and special needs. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: W.W. Norton.

Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Snow, C. (1998). Infant development (2nd ed.). Albany, NY: Delmar.

Stonehouse, A. (1990). Characteristics of toddlers. In A. Stonehouse (Ed.), Trusting toddlers: Planning for one-to three-year-olds in child care centers (pp. 1-13). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Edna Neal Collins is Assistant Professor, Department of Curricular Studies, University of North Carolina at Wilmington. Cindy G. McGaha is Assistant Professor, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina.