Counselor intervention in the post-secondary planning of African American Students with learning disabilities.

Transitioning African American students with learning disabilities from high school to post secondary education requires that school counselors be flexible in their roles and functions. This is critical as school counselors work within personal and sociohistorical prisms that impact counseling programs and services for this population. The authors emphasize points of awareness to which school counselors must attend in their work with African American students with learning disabilities. Ethnically appropriate counseling interventions are also discussed.

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Meeting the needs of African American students with learning disabilities requires that the school counselor don hats ranging from individual counselor to advocate. The unique needs of students dictate the role of the school counselor at any given rime. The degrees to which these duties are performed have been shaped by the Individual with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), originally known as The Education of the Handicapped Act, Public Law (P.L.) 94-192. Passed by Congress in 1975, amended in 1986 and 1990 (at which time the name changed to IDEA), and reauthorized in 1997, the Act mandates that schools and all supporting personnel grant a free and appropriate public education to children (birth to 21 years of age) with disabilities (Baumberger & Harper, 1999; Glenn, 1998; Pierangelo & Crane, 1997). Under the auspices of the Act, school counselors assist students in negotiating personal, social, educational, or developmental issues that impact their academic and future life experiences.

The educational process for African American students with learning disabilities can be precarious given membership in two historically oppressed groups. Historically, being African American or having a disability in U.S. society bas resulted in restricted or denied access to academic, social, and economic opportunities. Resultant stigmatization can contribute to failure to reach full personal potential (Herbert, & Cheatham, 1988). As African American students with learning disabilities prepare to enter post-secondary settings, school counselors can facilitate their school-to-school transition by developing a comprehensive transition plan which emphasizes family, sense of belonging, and overcoming oppression.

Specifically addressed in this manuscript are (a) knowledge of African American students with learning disabilities, (b) African American family connections and sense of belonging, (c) barriers in post-secondary education, and (d) school counseling interventions. First discussed, however, is the importance of school counselor self-awareness regarding issues of ethnicity and disability.

SELF-AWARENESS

It is imperative that school counselors be cognizant of their own personal biases as related to working with African American students with learning disabilities. School counselors need to be aware of who they are culturally and ethnically. Attention must also be given to attitudes about disabilities, their own and others. Before school counselors can work successfully with students with disabilities, they must understand how cultural and ethnic identity as well as disabilities relate to their own life circumstances. Failure to take a personal inventory regarding attitudes and beliefs on these matters may translate into interactions that serve to interfere with their effectiveness in the school counselor's role.

Attitudes toward African American Students

Many perceptions of African American student competencies have been framed by racial undertones that stem from historical hostilities among groups. Bobo (2000) evidenced current studies indicating the prevalence of negative racial stereotyping of Blacks by Whites, for example. White stereotypes of African Americans as less intelligent seem to be equated more with environmental and cultural traditions; whereas in the past, this idea was more readily assigned to biological origins. As viewed from an educational lens, it is not surprising then that the literature reflects that teachers generally expect less of Black students than White students (Bobo; Good, 1987). Traditionally, the counseling arena has emphasized work with middle to upper class persons of European heritage. A focus on theories and interventions for persons from this group has served to marginalize African American students and others who may not benefit from the assumptions upon which the generic characteristics of counseling are based (Sue & Sue, 2003). Sue and Sue classify these characteristics as culture-bound values, class-bound values, and language variables. Counselors who, for example, believe and expect that all of their clients should adhere to individualistic and ambiguous world views and speak "Standard English," create attitudinal barriers in their work with African Americans, who traditionally value a group orientation, structured approaches, and who may speak a varied dialect. Persons who do not abide by mainstream cultural mores may be negatively labeled as dependent, unmotivated, or otherwise deficient. The rigid application of these stereotypical notions clearly discounts the uniqueness of each African American student and serves to maintain barriers to education.

Attitudes toward Disabilities

Glenn (1998) believes that the counseling profession has not adequately addressed issues surrounding counselor attitudes, values, and beliefs as related to youth with disabilities. He cites literature indicating a willingness of school counselors to refer children and adolescents with disabilities to other school personnel. Carson, Sitlington, and Frank (as cited in Bowen & Glenn, 1998) discuss numerous attitudes that may prevent school counselors from performing in a constructive manner. These attitudes include:

1. Biased overall evaluation. The counselor views all aspects of the student's functioning based on the student's disability. This prevents the counselor from considering the student holistically.

2. Pitying attitude. The counselor feels sorry for the students with a disability. This may be conveyed to the student in a condescending way.

3. Protective attitude. The counselor communicates a "savior" approach, which may foster student dependency.

4. Expert attitude. A superior attitude on the part of the counselor detracts from the students own empowering qualifies.

5. Patronizing attitude. This attitude is characterized by counselor platitudes that indicate a low expectation of the student and foster any of the student's low self-expectations.

In addition to these negative attitudes, the authors state that the counselor's anxiety affects the counselor/client dynamic. An increased understanding of one's personal vulnerabilities may lead to feelings of inferiority, helplessness, or embarrassment.

In efforts to personally evaluate self in relation to work with African American students with disabilities, school counselors might ask themselves critical questions such as:

* What do I think and feel about persons with back grounds different from my own (particularly as this relates to ethnicity and disability)?

* How comfortable am I working with African American students with disabilities?

* What are my strengths in working with this population?

* In what areas do I need to improve regarding this population?

* How can I go about counteracting any stereotypes that I might have regarding this group? (Combes & Durodoye, 2002, p. 185)

A thorough examination of one's attitudes, values, and beliefs can prove helpful in the enhancement of the counseling relationship. A school counselor who conveys an attitude of sensitivity, reassurance, and patience provides enrichment opportunities for the concerned parties (Bowen & Glenn, 1998).

KNOWLEDGE OF AFRICAN AMERICAN STUDENTS WITH LEARNING DISABILITIES

The educational system in the United States has often been viewed as being at odds with African American students, due to the conflict and controversy that have plagued the academic experiences of African American learners (Gibbs, 1998). The Office of Special Education Program's 22nd Annual Report to Congress on the IDEA (2000) reported that 18.3% of the students with learning disabilities were African American while 14.8% of the general student population between the ages of 6 and 21 were African American. Though this number has increased consistently over the past decade, African Americans have not always been over represented in the category of learning disabilities.

In an historical interpretation of the field of learning disabilities, Sleeter (1986) reviewed the category in the context of educational reform following Sputnik. As standards were raised and students more rigorously tested, a variety of categories were used, at the rime, to explain failures of minority and White students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds including slow learning, metal retardation, emotional disturbance, and cultural deprivation. The term learning disabilities "was created to explain the failures of white middle class children in a way that gave them some protection from the stigma of failure" (p. 46). After the creation of the category there was an overrepresentation of African American students identified as having mental retardation and an under representation in the category of learning disabilities. However, as the social climate changed in the 1960s and early 1970s, more African American students were identified as having learning disabilities. By 1974, African Americans were over represented (Sleeter).

Tucker (1999) uses the term learning disordered, which seems to be a capsulation of the terminology above noting that there are no estimations as to the prevalence of learning disorders among African American children. She attributes this to the representation of African American children in learning disorder research. African American children with learning disorders went largely undiagnosed and found themselves in "special classes" (p. 259) in the years preceding 1980. The intervening decades have witnessed increased numbers of African American students who have been diagnosed with learning disorders after receiving appropriate interventions; yet, there continues to be an overrepresentation of African American students in special education and nonacademic tracks. As a result of mislabeling in the primary grades, many African American adolescents have either dropped out or have been forced out of high school after years of marginal academic achievement, poor performance expectations by teachers, high suspension rates, and disordered learning environments. (Gibbs, 1998).

Young and Gerber (1998) also remind educators that four decades of growth have seen the learning disabilities arena address a myriad of needs for all persons with learning disabilities. Still, they state that there is a lack of inclusiveness in the field as related to issues of socioeconomic status. This in turn, carries with it ethnic implications. A prominent belief concerning labels such as:

   ... environment, cultural, and economic disadvantage
   as well as socioenvironmental influences
   was that low socioeconomic children did
   not belong in the learning disabilities category.
   Thus, children of color and those who were
   poor were typically unidentified or not served
   at all. In most cases it drove most of these children
   into other disability categories (i.e. mental
   retardation and behavior disorders) or
   other educational programs such as Chapter
   One, which serves students who are in need of
   educational interventions and qualify because
   of their high-risk status. (p. 2)

In linking disabilities, poverty, and youth, the authors go on to report the following statistics: (a) the chances of a child having a learning disability increases by 30% if the child lives in poverty; and (b) approximately 65% of homes with a student who has a specified learning disability have an average yearly income of less than $25,000 in comparison to over 38% for the general student body. It remains clear then, that work with African American students with learning disabilities requires that the school counselor be attuned not only to broader educational forces, but also to the influence of economic, social, and political conditions as well (Boyd-Franklin, 1989).

AFRICAN AMERICAN FAMILY CONNECTIONS AND SENSE OF BELONGING

The school counselor must have knowledge about the general cultural characteristics of African Americans. A focus on this area places the African American student with learning disabilities in an ethnic context that can guide the counselor's work through an increased understanding of an African American worldview. Conversely, the counselor must remain mindful that African Americans are not monolithic--each African American student is unique.

Family Structure

African American family structure is mutigenerational and comprised of interdependent kinship networks, drawn not only along bloodlines but also nonrelated people who provide material assistance and emotional support to family members (Martin & Martin, 1978; Taylor, Jackson, & Chatters, 1997). Parental roles, shared between parents, aunts, uncles, grandparents, ex-spouses and mates, neighbors, community members, and even older children can create an organized operation in which African American children learn how to manage the social, economic, and political hardships that continue to confront African Americans (Hines & Boyd-Franklin, 1996). Moreover, the extended kin network involves the conveyance of social and cultural values including racial identity and consciousness, appropriate gender roles, and the value of education (Franklin, Boyd-Franklin, & Draper, 2002). It is important to note that the African American extended kin network is inconsistent with the traditional concept of the nuclear family, which consists of two parents, responsible for child rearing. Consequently, African American family structure has been viewed as deficient, dysfunctional, and even pathological by sociologists, psychologists, and teachers responsible for educating African American youth.

Family Connections and Belongingness

The support that African American families provide to young adults is critical to making a successful transition from school to college life and adult responsibilities. African American parental expectations for educational attainment during early childhood and adolescence are predictive of the number of years of education--use of an authoritative parental style, characteristic of many African American households, results in more time spent on homework and higher educational attainment (Luster & Pipes McAdoo, 2002). For the parents of African American students with learning disabilities, initial efforts to support their children's education can give way to frustration, disillusionment, skepticism of special education, accommodations, and the educational system in general by the time these students reach high school (Harry, Mien, & McLaughlin, 1995). Combes and Durodoye (2002) indicate the reasons why African American parents might not participate in the transition planning process. These reasons include:

* Belief that education is the responsibility of teachers and other school personnel

* Issues related to time and resources to attend meetings or conferences

* Belief that school personnel do not understand or respect their culture

* Relative importance of transition planning to other more pressing and immediate family issues

* Past negative interactions with school regarding their adolescent or young adult

* Past negative interactions with school regarding their own educational experiences

* Difficulty accepting disability or limitations of their adolescent or young adult

* Feelings of inadequacy about understanding the school culture and the language of education

* Insecurities about value of family contribution to the transition process

* Fear of negative and unexpected information about their adolescent or young adult

* Feelings of hopelessness about the future of their adolescent or young adult (p. 180)

Indeed, research has demonstrated that African American parents do not respond to the initial diagnosis of a learning disability with guilt or shock but instead, rally resources and identify nontraditional ways to utilize the extended kin network to meet the student's educational and learning needs (Harry, Rueda, & Kalyanpur, 1999; Marion, 1980).

As African American students with learning disabilities get ready to enter post secondary settings, they must consider how to build solid support net works that meet their emotional and social needs with resources available to them both on the college campus and the surrounding community. First, school counselors can be instrumental in assisting these students in this process by helping them identify campus organizations committed to African American students and students with learning disabilities. Prior to matriculation, African American students with learning disabilities can identify campus organizations committed to ensuring the welfare of ethnic minority students and students with learning disabilities. For example, students can visit the campus and review college catalogs to identify organizations such as Black Student Unions, university Cultural Centers, and disability support services. School counselors can assist students in arranging orientations at these sites and discussing the importance of accessing their services. Identifying a peer group and establishing adult role models and mentors will maximize opportunities for academic and social success of African American students with learning disabilities by fostering feelings of belonging and purpose, which is critical to college retention (Sedlacek, 1999). As these students transition to higher education, identification with college peer groups and adult mentors can help them achieve educational and career goals and foster autonomy; they do not supplant the family of origin but can lead students to age-appropriate independence and self-determination.

Similarly, school counselors can assist African American students with learning disabilities in fostering relationships with African American community members in the college town. For example, school counselors can assist these students in identifying elders in African American churches or civic organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), thereby providing opportunities to meet and network with African American professionals who have navigated the college pipeline and can help these students tap resources that will support their academic endeavors. School counselors can accomplish this by (a) encouraging students to contact organizations directly through letters or phone calls prior to matriculation, (b) having students contact African American alumni through the college's alumni office, and (c) working with the extended kin network of African American students with learning disabilities to identify community resources sensitive to the cultural needs of students.

BARRIERS IN POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION

Racism and discrimination against African American students on college campuses result in student attrition, a hostile learning environment, and isolation (Fries-Brett, & Turner, 2001; Wilds, 2000). The confluence of race and disability status impacts student and peer relationships as well as the attitudes of faculty members. Coughlin (1997) maintained that the social and learning experiences of ethnic minorities parallels that of persons with learning disabilities. Reactions of others can include misunderstanding, conflict, and labeling as different. African Americans who maintain membership in both the racial minority and learning ability categories can experience self-esteem problems, social avoidance, and defensiveness (Coughlin).

Female college students, faculty, and staff tend to be more sympathetic towards persons with disabilities regardless of the type of disability than male college students, faculty, and staff (Askamit, Morris, & Leuenberger, 1987; Sedlacek & Stovall, 1983). Since the inception of IDEA, college professors have had more experience interacting with students with learning disabilities, but report more acceptance of persons with physical disabilities than those with learning disabilities (Baggett, 1994).

African American students with learning disabilities preparing for college can benefit from understanding how discrimination can impact the education process. As counselors and other school personnel work with these students they should guide them to examine the following implications: (a) making sense of an environment that may not be accepting because of racial prejudice and lack of understanding about learning disabilities, (b) discerning the meaning of negative encounters through the prisms of race, ability, and gender identities, and (c) identifying intrapersonal and community resources that acknowledge these stressors and enhance self-concept and self-esteem.

African American students with learning disabilities often struggle with asking for accommodations when they get to college until they experience academic difficulty or failure. Peers may question their academic ability and integrity when basic accommodations are in place and African American students may be reluctant to self-disclose their disabilities to faculty because of fear of being labeled incompetent or seeking unwarranted special treatment. School counselors can help these students through development of students' self-advocacy skills and understanding the role of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in college curriculum planning. For example, school counselors can administer learning style inventories to help African American students with learning disabilities understand how their learning disability symptoms are manifested and, subsequently, take charge of their learning and educational planning. Further, advising students on how to maintain documentation of their disabilities, individual education plans, treatment goals, and interventions encourages students to advocate for their needs within the college system. As these students learn about eligibility guidelines and how to utilize academic advising services in high school, it is more likely that they will utilize these help-seeking behaviors in college, thereby reducing the likelihood that they will surfer in silence and not have their academic needs met.

Moreover, open discussion with school counselors about the negative expectations that teachers and peers may have towards African American students with learning disabilities can also prepare students to face racism and discrimination and plan strategies to manage concomitant stress and anxiety. Helpful disability policies and ADA regulations may not necessarily reflect the attitudes or practices of faculty, staff, or peers but African American students with learning disabilities who are cognizant of their rights and protection afforded by the law can more fully participate in their education and complete college successfully.

Counseling Interventions

The transition to post-secondary education for African American students with disabilities requires that school counselors design interventions that facilitate success in the students' choice of college options. Traditional duties such as individual and group counseling may be supplanted by the roles of consultant, educator, and referral source (Bowen & Glenn, 1998). Additionally, Bowen and Glenn state that the counselor may have to step into the role of an advocate. This, unlike the previously mentioned functions, is not a traditional role for school counselors. It involves pro-actively assisting the student in negotiating the educational environment. The need for these skills manifest as the school counselor works with the social/emotional, academic/educational, and career/vocational issues that are integral to the post-secondary transition process (School Counseling Standards, 2002).

Social/Emotional Issues

The psychological needs of students with disabilities have received little attention in the literature, as lotus has been concentrated on the prevalence of academic concerns among this population (Lombana, 1992; Thompson & Littrell, 1998). Available literature indicates that students with learning disabilities have more personal difficulties than students without learning disabilities (Thompson & Littrell). Lombana lists eight characteristics that have been shown to differentiate learning disabled students from other youth: (a) less personal and social competence; (b) more dependent personalities; (c) higher delinquency rates; (d) lower self-concepts; (e) more involvement with drugs; (f) more feelings of loneliness; (g) more conflictual relationships with their families; and (h) more suicidal thoughts (p. 33).

Thompson and Littrell (1998) note that school counselor strategies to combat these issues have traditionally employed child and family counseling. These types of counseling generally have not fit well in the school environment because of time and energy restraints. On the other hand, strategies that involve a time-limited and learning-oriented approach for students and parents in the school setting appear to be better suited to this environment (Lombana, 1992; Thompson & Littrell). These approaches speak well to culturally sensitive counseling with African Americans, who appear more responsive to brief, problem solving and child-focused therapies by providers who are both active and directive (Hines, & Boyd-Franklin, 1996; Sue & Sue, 2003).

Lombana (1992) states that group counseling bas been found to be a highly effective and focused method that engenders youth with learning disabilities to increase their social skills and self-worth and decrease ineffective behaviors. Peer groups led by the school counselor at the high school level can help students in their social-cognitive and behavioral skills development. Students with learning disabilities can also act as tutors. This has been shown to significantly decrease truancy.

If working as part of a team of school personnel, the counselor's role as a family liaison may be integral to smooth interactions (Carpenter, King-Sears, & Keys, 1998). This role encourages the parents of students with disabilities to actively connect with school members involved in their child's care. The counselor maintains contact with the family, educates parents as to their roles in decision making for their child, and provides support for effective parental interventions. In addition, school counselors may discover that they will need to mediate between the family and various agencies, advocate in support of families asserting their rights, impart professional knowledge and skills, and therapeutically assist family members. The school counselor as a family liaison can be particularly helpful to those African American parents who have been marginalized or ignored due to cultural differences (Carpenter et al.; Harry, 1992; Harry et al., 1995).

Academic/Educational Issues

The numbers of persons with disabilities who enter college are increasing; however, their enrollment rate continues to be low (Cummings, Maddux, & Casey, 2000; Levinson, & Ohler, 1998). Levinson and Ohler state that the special academic needs of this population tend to go unrecognized or unmet in higher education settings. Cummings et al. high light several detrimental characteristics associated with learning disabilities such as deficits in general organizational skills, problems with focusing attention, and difficulty in processing verbal and written communication. The authors state that students with learning disabilities who enroll in college often discover that their learning disability has a negative impact on their post-secondary education experiences. As such, the skills of school counselors in the academic/educational sphere should be geared toward helping the student find success in the college environment.

It is within the school counselor's purview to equip and link transitioning students and their parents with information that compares and contrasts high school and college. The size of one's classes, amount of time spent in class, study time, testing and grading procedures, and a greater freedom and independence are issues that may be necessary to address (Cummings et al., 2000; Levinson, & Ohler, 1998). Hildreth, Dixon, Frerichs, and Heflin (1994) state counselors should be attentive to Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and American College Test (ACT) services. Testing procedures for which students with learning disabilities may be eligible include time extensions, use of a reader, large text print, a recorder to mark answers, flexible test dates, additional break periods, a separate test room, selectable foreground and background color formats, and individualized testing directives (Hildreth et al.; Cummings & Maddux, 1999). Testing services must be notified in advance as to the need for accommodation; information of which may be placed in the student's records (Cummings & Maddux; Cummings et al.; Hildreth et al.)

Factors linked with the successful post-secondary transition of students with learning disabilities include average intellect, completion of an academic curriculum, success in English courses, a grade point average of 2.5 or more, motivation and endurance, constructive study skills and strategies, strong social skills, effective problem-solving skills, support, and an awareness of one's areas of strengths and limitations (Levinson & Ohler, 1998). Tucker (1999) suggests six general self-empowerment strategies for helpers that provide African American youth with tools that address the above factors. These multidisciplinary strategies are as follows:

1. Self-motivation. The school counselor provides students with opportunities to see that the link between their academic success and the achievement of goals can be established through short- and long-term goal planning.

2. Self-control of academic progress. A step-by-step approach to learning is incorporated to empower African American students; many of whom may feel powerless in mainstream environments.

3. Self-reinforcement of academic effort, progress, and success. Students are encouraged to give themselves praise and be proud of each of their scholastic achievements in efforts to facilitate self-confidence.

4. Teaching adaptive skills. School counselors can work with students on the use of effective verbal and nonverbal communication skills necessary for classroom interactions.

5. Self-management or self-control for reducing or extinguishing maladaptive behaviors. Students who evidence problematic behaviors are shown methods that reduce this behavior.

6. Teaching academic success behaviors. School counselors can encourage students to engage in behaviors that increase their chances for academic success such as volunteering to ask questions or note review with the instructor. (pp. 232-239)

Career/Vocational Issues

In their investigation of the career development needs of post-secondary students with disabilities, Hitchings, Luzzo, Retish, Horvath, and Ristow (1998) conclude that this population does not fully comprehend how their disabilities impact their career development. Further information indicates that the students are less able to recognize how their disability influences the career decision-making process. A slower rate of career maturity for students with disabilities may mean that students maintain unrealistic job expectations, inappropriate career aspirations, and a lack of consideration as to how their areas of strength and areas in need of improvement impinge upon their career success (Cummings et al., 2000; Levinson, & Ohler, 1998). Cummings et al. cite unfortunate vocational statistics for adults with learning disabilities. These include higher unemployment and underemployment rates, lower wages that adults without disabilities, less contentment with one's employment standings, and more negative employer outlooks when compared to other workers.

Given the call for self advocacy and career development among college students with disabilities, Hitchings et al. (1998) recommend that professionals working with this population attend to the long-term implications of interventions and strive to increase the independence of the students. This might entail counselors at the post-secondary level promoting the insertion of self-advocacy issues in orientation programs. This can be a worthwhile modeling technique for students in how to be effective advocates for their needs (Cummings et al., 2000). Career counselors could encourage students in the formation of an individualized career plan that would help the student identify career goals early on and keep them in consistent contact with the career center. Career counselors could help the student explore and obtain knowledge about occupations through volunteering, interning, part-rime work, or cooperative programs. This knowledge would also give students an indication of the possible impact their disability would have on the job. Hitchings et al. speak to the importance of counselors at the high school level addressing career path issues and disability implications with this population. Levinson and Ohler (1998) reach further back than high school and advocate transition planning in career education and development begin in kindergarten.

CONCLUSIONS

Meeting the needs of a diverse student body means that school counselors may be called upon to perform roles and functions that fall within and outside of the traditional range of counseling duties. This is definitely the case as related to work with African American students with disabilities. School counselors need to be informed on a personal level with regard to self-awareness, knowledge of diverse groups, and appropriate interventions. Attentiveness must also be paid to the social, political, and economic issues at both mainstream and specific ethnic group levels. All the while, school counselors have to remain cognizant of the personal, academic, and career matters that are a part of the transitioning experience. Balancing all of this information requires counseling skills that are flexible and culturally appropriate, h is this combination that helps to create a counseling relationship that is conducive to the productive high-school-to-young-adulthood transition of African American students with disabilities.

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Beth A. Durodoye, Ed.D., is an associate professor in the Counseling Program and Bertina H. Combes, Ph.D., is an associate professor in Special Education. Both are with the University of North Texas, Denton. E-mail: [e-mail] Rhonda M. Bryant, Ph.D. is guidance counselor at Glenellen Elementary School, Clarksville, TN.