Cooperative learning: why the reluctance?Abstract Cooperative learning cooperative learning Education theory A student-centered teaching strategy in which heterogeneous groups of students work to achieve a common academic goal–eg, completing a case study or a evaluating a QC problem. See Problem-based learning, Socratic method. provides a means for educators to positively influence social and academic outcomes for students receiving special education services to facilitate student motivation and active participation within the classroom. Cooperative learning promotes individual accountability, learning retention, student involvement and positive social interactions. Despite the benefits, cooperative learning is not implemented by a significant number of schools due to traditional paradigms existing within educational systems. The implementation of cooperative learning is dependent upon teacher sell-confidence, practicality of implementation, and training of cooperative learning principles. Introduction Students receiving special education services often lack the academic and interpersonal skills "Interpersonal skills" refers to mental and communicative algorithms applied during social communications and interactions in order to reach certain effects or results. The term "interpersonal skills" is used often in business contexts to refer to the measure of a person's ability to achieve success within school settings. Students deficient de·fi·cient adj. 1. Lacking an essential quality or element. 2. Inadequate in amount or degree; insufficient. deficient a state of being in deficit. in these skills are likely to become unmotivated learners and inactive in·ac·tive adj. 1. Not active or tending to be active. 2. a. Not functioning or operating; out of use: inactive machinery. b. participants in the classroom (Maheady, 2001). Cooperative learning provides a means for educators to positively influence social and academic outcomes for students with disabilities to facilitate student motivation and active participation within the classroom. Cooperative learning is an instructional strategy which places students in small groups and encourages individuals to work together in solving common problems, completing academic tasks, and learning specific content (Siegel, 2005; Slavin, 1995). Through cooperative learning, positive interdependence in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" is developed through students sharing resources and working towards common goals (Abrami, Poulsen, & Chambers, 2004), which provides students opportunities to experience the dynamics of teambuilding (Dyson & Grineski, 2001; Dyson & Rubin, 2003; Grineski 1996). Students become responsible not only for their own learning, but for the learning of others (Mercer mer·cer n. Chiefly British A dealer in textiles, especially silks. [Middle English, from Old French mercier, trader, from merz, merchandise, from Latin merx & Mercer, 1998). Benefits of Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning promotes individual accountability (Dyson & Grineski, 2001; Dyson & Rubin, 2003; Grineski, 1996; Sonnier-York & Stanford, 2002), higher academic achievement, learning retention, student involvement and positive social interactions (Gillies & Ashman, 1998; McManus & Gettinger, 1996; Quinn, 2002; Slavin, 1995; Smith, 1997). Cooperative learning further promotes mastery, accuracy, and fluency flu·ent adj. 1. a. Able to express oneself readily and effortlessly: a fluent speaker; fluent in three languages. b. for both students with and without disabilities (Arreaya-Mayer, 1998), allowing students to approach new learning tasks independently from classroom sessions. This cost effective and time efficient method of instruction promotes positive relationships and facilitates interaction between special education and general education students, while increasing self-esteem for all students (Smith, 1997). Students from all subjects and grade levels, including pre-school (Kohler & Strain, 1999) benefit from cooperative learning. This non-traditional approach to learning not only provides multiple opportunities for practice, but encourages students to work together through positive active engagement (Arreaga-Mayer, 1998; Maheady, 2001; Quinn, 2002; Slavin, 1996). Through active engagement, students are less likely to exhibit off behavior tasks and disruptive behaviors (Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995). Special educators can more effectively influence desired behavioral and academic growth through the implementation of cooperative learning strategies. Cooperative learning not only facilitates the development of social and interpersonal skills (Abrami et al., 2004), but enhances the development of reading skills (McMaster, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2006), mathematics skills (Gardner, Cartledge, Seidl, & Lynn, 2001; Whicker, Nunnery, & Bol, 1997) and spelling skills (Burks, 2004) for students receiving special education services. Arreaga-Mayer (1998) further concludes that peer-mediated methods have been proven beneficial for both students with and without disabilities in social studies and science. Gillies (2002) studied the effectiveness of cooperative learning one year after students were initially trained to effectively work together in cooperative groups. This study concluded that students who received training in cooperative learning were more cooperative, and were more likely to assist and seek assistance from peers in academic instructional tasks in comparison to those students not exposed to cooperative learning. Jenkins, Antil, & Vadasy (2003) investigated the perceptions of general education teachers towards the effectiveness of cooperative learning on special education students. The majority of participants indicated that cooperative learning improved self-esteem, on-task behavior, academic success and productivity of special education students. Additionally, these teachers stated that cooperative learning provided an effective alternative means to learning through increased opportunities for special education students to contribute and participate within their learning environment. Wolford, Heward, & Alber (2001) studied the effects of training students with learning disabilities to seek assistance from peers in general education classroom settings. This study found a positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation between training students to recruit peer assistance and increased academic productivity and pro-social interactions. Ryan, Reid, and Epstein (2004) reviewed 14 studies researching the effectiveness of cooperative learning on students with emotional and behavioral disorders Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is a broad category which is used commonly in educational settings, to group a range of more specific perceived difficulties of children and adolescents. . While the authors concluded that most studies did not accurately reflect the ethnic and gender composition of actual classroom placement of students with emotional behavioral disorders behavioral disorder Psychiatry A disorder characterized by displayed behaviors over a long period of time which significantly deviate from socially acceptable norms for a person's age and situation , these studies documented success across multiple academic subject areas and grade levels. One cooperative learning model that has proven to be an effective form of peer-mediated instruction is the Class Wide Peer Tutoring A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored. In an undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct from the graduate students who may be teaching the writing classes. Program (CWPT CWPT Civil War Preservation Trust ) (Burks, 2004; Greenwood Greenwood. 1 City (1990 pop. 26,265), Johnson co., central Ind.; settled 1822, inc. as a city 1960. A residential suburb of Indianapolis, Greenwood is in a retail shopping area. Manufactures include motor vehicle parts and metal products. , 2001; Greenwood & Delquadri, 1995; Utley et al. 2001). Greenwood and Delquadri describe CWPT as a method of classroom organization whereby tutor-tutee pairs work together within competing teams. Originally developed to assist poor and culturally diverse students, CWPT has expanded over the years to directly serve students with disabilities. CWPT caters towards diversity through the incorporation of components that match wide ranges of learning styles. Reluctance to Change Despite the benefits of cooperative learning, a significant number of schools do not implement or support this form of instruction despite the fact that their students could benefit from these practices (Maheady, 2001). These procedures must be formally accepted across both general and special education settings in order to be effective for students receiving special education services (Greenwood & Delquadri, 1995; Kohler & Strain, 1999), as many teachers mistakenly believe that cooperative learning lowers academic standards (Rieck & Wadsworth, 2005). Despite cooperative learning serving as a powerful instructional tool for at-risk learners (Slavin, 1995), students that exhibit deficiencies in academic and social skills are typically denied opportunities to engage in cooperative learning situations. Students who demonstrate inappropriate classroom behavior are likely to be given independent work in isolation of classmates Classmates can refer to either:
According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. King-Sears (2001), many schools are reluctant to promote effective empirical-based practices such as cooperative learning due to traditional paradigms existing within education systems. Paradigms are belief systems and values that promote habitual Regular or customary; usual. A habitual drunkard, for example, is an individual who regularly becomes intoxicated as opposed to a person who drinks infrequently. behaviors, which influence motivation levels regarding the willingness among teachers to adopt innovative instructional practices. King-Sears emphasizes that institutionalizing cooperative learning is dependent upon educators understanding the importance of knowing how to implement peermediation in addition to having sufficient support and commitment among individuals from all levels within the system. The minimal allotted al·lot tr.v. al·lot·ted, al·lot·ting, al·lots 1. To parcel out; distribute or apportion: allotting land to homesteaders; allot blame. 2. time for training, implementation, support, and evaluation devoted by school systems, increases the difficulty of institutionalizing empirically-based practices such as peer-mediation. Teachers become frustrated frus·trate tr.v. frus·trat·ed, frus·trat·ing, frus·trates 1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: over the unwillingness of many school systems to commit to innovative practices beyond a short-term time frame. This short sightedness results in many classroom teachers becoming passive towards new learning methods. Siegel (2005) states that the willingness of teachers to implement cooperative learning is dependent upon teacher experience and knowledge, congruence con·gru·ence n. 1. a. Agreement, harmony, conformity, or correspondence. b. An instance of this: "What an extraordinary congruence of genius and era" between teacher philosophy and instructional methods, and teacher ownership of innovation. Vaughn (2001) adds that teachers may believe that cooperative learning is too time consuming, and difficult to implement due to teachers being uncomfortable relinquishing re·lin·quish tr.v. re·lin·quished, re·lin·quish·ing, re·lin·quish·es 1. To retire from; give up or abandon. 2. To put aside or desist from (something practiced, professed, or intended). 3. control to students. Furthermore, teachers believe that peer-mediation approaches may weaken classroom management procedures. Abrami et al. (2004) concluded from studying teacher perceptions that the implementation of cooperative learning is dependent upon teacher self-confidence, practicality of implementation, classroom conditions that promote successful implementation, and adequate training in cooperative learning principles. Multiple staff must be trained to effectively implement peer-mediated procedures in numerous settings. Teachers must have the ability to properly train and support students into becoming effective peers for students with disabilities and provide evaluation procedures to assess the effectiveness of peer-mediation for students with disabilities (Greenwood & Delquadri, 1995; Kohler & Strain, 1999). Phillips & Jenkins (1997) conducted a study that introduced teachers to peer-mediated instructional methods. The researchers concluded that teachers did not respond favorably fa·vor·a·ble adj. 1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds. 2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis. 3. to peer-mediated procedures, as most teacher surveyed failed to implement peer-tutoring methods in their classrooms. Those educators who were interested in peer-mediated methods omitted or altered many of the procedures. Most teachers from this study failed to use a positive reinforcement positive reinforcement, n a technique used to encourage a desirable behavior. Also called positive feedback, in which the patient or subject receives encouraging and favorable communication from another person. system to reward students. Additionally, teachers were reluctant to form groups with students of unequal abilities, which could possibly be attributed to teacher concerns over potential detrimental det·ri·men·tal adj. Causing damage or harm; injurious. det  ri·men effects on self-esteem. As a result, teachers were more comfortable in pairing students with equal abilities. According to Phillips and Jenkins (1997) and Vaughn (2001), the altering or omission omission n. 1) failure to perform an act agreed to, where there is a duty to an individual or the public to act (including omitting to take care) or is required by law. Such an omission may give rise to a lawsuit in the same way as a negligent or improper act. of essential procedural components will likely alter the effectiveness of cooperative learning instructional strategies. Teachers who fail to effectively implement contingencies of reinforcement reinforcement /re·in·force·ment/ (-in-fors´ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or and assessment procedures will likely fail to provide the necessary structure to promote positive academic and social interactions. While research has focused on procedures for correctly implementing cooperative learning procedures, researchers should focus more on studying the means to facilitate ease of utilization (King-Sears, 2001). Educators would more likely utilize cooperative learning practices if implementation is perceived as practical, beneficial, and applicable in multiple settings (Carnine, 1997). Furthermore, researchers should collaborate with teachers in researching ways of making peer-mediation practices more practical within classroom settings. While teachers desire specific guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. in how to implement effective peer intervention instruction (Vaughn, 2001), research into peer mediation mediation, in law, type of intervention in which the disputing parties accept the offer of a third party to recommend a solution for their controversy. Mediation has long been a part of international law, frequently involving the use of an international commission, fails to provide suggestions regarding how to link cooperative learning theory with specific instructional objectives (Maheady, 2001). Linking specific peer-teaching methods to specific instructional outcomes will likely ease the application and implementation of cooperative learning within classrooms. Cooperative learning does not match the individualized in·di·vid·u·al·ize tr.v. in·di·vid·u·al·ized, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·ing, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·es 1. To give individuality to. 2. To consider or treat individually; particularize. 3. instructional needs and personality types of all students despite studies citing the effectiveness of this approach for students with disabilities. Sternberg (1997) concludes that while children with external personality types are likely to benefit in cooperative learning environments, students with internal personality types are likely to prefer traditional instructional approaches. Educators should take individual instructional needs and student personality types into consideration prior to the implementation of cooperative learning activities (Genovesse, 2005; McMaster & Fuchs, 2002). Rather than simply recommending to all teachers to utilize cooperative learning, Siegel (2005) emphasizes the importance of constructing professional development opportunities to facilitate constructivist con·struc·tiv·ism n. A movement in modern art originating in Moscow in 1920 and characterized by the use of industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal, and plastic to create nonrepresentational, often geometric objects. classroom environments. These opportunities should consist of in-service training that promotes teacher self-reflection of personal knowledge and daily practices, strategies to incorporate cooperative learning into daily practices, and addressing contextual variables that may influence the utilization of cooperative learning. The ultimate goal of cooperative learning is to produce positive results and improvements towards the social, behavioral, and academic well being of students. Cooperative learning, to include peer-mediated programs, must be comprehensive, intensive, practical and effective (Kohler & Strain, 1999). Instruction should be comprehensive to allow generalization gen·er·al·i·za·tion n. 1. The act or an instance of generalizing. 2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application. across multiple contexts and settings. Furthermore, students must have repeated opportunities to practice skills throughout the day because of the importance of intensive instruction. Intensive instruction includes optimizing learning outcomes through high levels of child engagement over periods of time. These procedures must be accessible to students in order for there to be meaningful results. Additionally, teachers must provide clear expectations of what is expected of students during cooperative learning activities. Expectations include clarification of rules, and sequence of activities. Furthermore, teachers must consider group selection to allow positive interaction among students (Kohler & Strain, 1999; Sonnier-York & Stanford, 2002; Vaughn, 2001). Coke (2005) concludes that educators can best promote cooperative learning practices by "practicing what we preach preach v. preached, preach·ing, preach·es v.tr. 1. To proclaim or put forth in a sermon: preached the gospel. 2. ". According to Coke, educators can model cooperative learning for students through incorporating this instructional method into teacher professional development. School districts providing educators with opportunities to collaborate with colleagues across grade levels will provide teachers with the resources and knowledge to enhance quality cooperative learning and instructional opportunities for students in the classroom. Educators will likely discover the benefits of cooperative learning for their students as they themselves experience enhanced professional development through cooperative learning. Conclusion Why are many educators reluctant to conduct cooperative learning practices in the classroom despite the potential academic and social benefits for students with disabilities? The demands placed upon students receiving special education services to excel academically and socially are increasing as school districts are placing more of these learners in inclusion classroom environments. Increased accountability is not limited to students as high expectations are placed on educators to provide quality instruction to all students. The demands and expectations placed on both students and teachers solidify so·lid·i·fy v. so·lid·i·fied, so·lid·i·fy·ing, so·lid·i·fies v.tr. 1. To make solid, compact, or hard. 2. To make strong or united. v.intr. the significance of implementing empirically-based practices such as cooperative learning in the classroom. Unfortunately, those students who are most at-risk for academic failure are often denied cooperative learning opportunities. Educators are likely to be discouraged dis·cour·age tr.v. dis·cour·aged, dis·cour·ag·ing, dis·cour·ag·es 1. To deprive of confidence, hope, or spirit. 2. To hamper by discouraging; deter. 3. from implementing cooperative learning practices in their classrooms due to lack of training, resources and long-term commitment from school districts. Through proper support, more educators will likely have the skills and self-confidence to positively influence social and academic outcomes of students receiving special education services through cooperative learning. References Abrami, P. C., Poulsen, C., & Chambers, B. (2004). Teacher motivation to implement an educational innovation: Factors differentiating users and non-users of cooperative learning. Educational Psychology, 24(2), 201-216. Arreaga-Mayer, C. (1998). Increasing active student responding and improving academic performance through classwide peer tutoring. Intervention in School and Clinic, 34(2), 89-94. Burks, M. (2004). Effects of classwide peer tutoring on the number of words spelled correctly by students with LD. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(5), 301-384. Carnine, D. (1997). Bridging the research-to-practice gap. Exceptional Children, 63, 513-521. Coke, P. K. (2005). Practicing what we preach: An argument for cooperative learning opportunities for elementary and secondary educators. Education, 126(2), 392-398. Dyson, B. & Grineski, S. (2001). Using cooperative learning structures in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72(2), 28-31. Dyson, B., & Rubin, A. (2003). Implementing cooperative learning in elementary physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(1), 48-55. Gardner, R., Cartledge, G., Seidl, B., & Lynn, M. (2001). Mt. olive after-school program. Remedial REMEDIAL. That which affords a remedy; as, a remedial statute, or one which is made to supply some defects or abridge some superfluities of the common law. 1 131. Com. 86. The term remedial statute is also applied to those acts which give a new remedy. Esp. Pen. Act. 1. & Special Education, 22(1), 22-33. Genovese gen·o·a n. A large jib used on a racing yacht. Also called genoa jib. [After Genoa.] Adj. 1. , J. E. (2005). Why educational innovations fail: An individual difference perspective. Social Behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. and Personality, 33(6), 569-578. Gillies, R. M. (2002). The residual effects of cooperative-learning experiences: A two-year follow-up. Journal of Educational Research, 96(1), 15-21. Gillies, R., & Ashman, A. (1998). Behavior and interactions of children in cooperative groups in lower and middle elementary grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 746-757. Remedial & Special Education, 22(1), 34-48. Greenwood, C. R., & Delquadri, J. (1995). Classwide peer tutoring and the prevention of school failure. Preventing School Failure, 39(4), 21-25. Grineski, S. (1996). Cooperative learning in physical education. Champaign Champaign (shămpān`), city (1990 pop. 63,502), Champaign co., E central Ill.; inc. 1860. It adjoins the city of Urbana and is a commercial and industrial center in a fertile farm area. The Univ. , IL: Human Kinetics kinetics: see dynamics. Kinetics (classical mechanics) That part of classical mechanics which deals with the relation between the motions of material bodies and the forces acting upon them. . Jenkins, J. R., Antil, L. R., & Vadasy, P. F. (2003). How cooperative learning works for special education and remedial students. Exceptional Children, 69(3), 279-292. King-Sears, M. E. (2001). Institutionalizing peer-mediated instruction and interventions in schools: Beyond "train and hope". Remedial & Special Education, 22(2), 89- 102. Kohler, F. W., & Strain, P. S. (1999). Maximizing peer-mediated resources in integrated pre-school classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19 (2), 92- 102. Maheady, L. (2001). Peer-mediated instruction and interventions and students with mild disabilities. Remedial & Special Education, 22(1), 4-15. McMaster, K. N., & Fuchs, D. (2002). Effects of cooperative learning on the academic achievement of students with learning disabilities: An update of Tateyama-Sniezek's review. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 17(2), 107-117. McMaster, K. L., Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Research on peer-assisted learning strategies: The promise and limitations of peer-mediated instruction. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 22(1), 5-25. McManus, S., & Gettinger, M. (1996). Teacher and student evaluations of cooperative learning and observed interactive behaviors. The Journal of Educational Research, 90, 13-22. Mercer, C. D., & Mercer, A. R. (1998). Teaching students with learning problems (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River Saddle River may refer to:
In 1913, law professor Dr. . Phillips, N. B., & Jenkins, J. R. (1997). The research-to-practice ball game: Classwide peer tutoring and teacher interest, implementation, and modifications. Remedial & Special Education, 18 (3), 143-156. Quinn, M. M. (2002). Changing antisocial antisocial /an·ti·so·cial/ (-so´sh'l) 1. denoting behavior that violates the rights of others, societal mores, or the law. 2. denoting the specific personality traits seen in antisocial personality disorder. behavior patterns in young boys: A structured cooperative learning approach. Education and Treatment of Children, 25(4), 380-395. Rieck, W. A., & Wadsworth, D. E. (2005). Assessment accommodations: Helping students with exceptional learning needs. Intervention in School and Clinic, 41(2), 105-109. Ryan, J. B., Reid, R., & Epstein, M. H. (2004). Peer-mediated intervention studies intervention studies, n.pl the epidemiologic investigations designed to test a hypothesized cause and effect relation by modifying the supposed causal factor(s) in the study population. on academic achievement for students with EBD EBD Emotional or behavioral disorder . Remedial & Special Education,25(6), 330-341. Siegel, C. (2005). Implementing a research-based model of cooperative learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(6), 339-348. Slavin, R. E. (1996). Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know, what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21,43-69. Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Smith, R. G. (1997). Integrating computer-based instruction and peer tutoring. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33, 56-59. Sonnier-York, C., & Stanford, P. (2002). Learning to cooperate: A teacher's perspective. Teaching Exceptional Children, 34(6), 40-44. Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Thinking styles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). . Utley, C. A., Reddy, S. S., Delquadri, J. C., Greenwood, C. R., Mortweet, S. L., & Bowman, V. (2001). Classwide peer tutoring: An effective teaching procedure for facilitating the acquisition of health education and safety facts with students with developmental disabilities developmental disabilities (DD), n.pl the pathologic conditions that have their origin in the embryology and growth and development of an individual. DDs usually appear clinically before 18 years of age. . Education & Treatment of Children, 24(1), 1-27. Vaughn, S. (2001). Collaborative strategic reading as a means to enhance peer- mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: instruction for reading comprehension Reading comprehension can be defined as the level of understanding of a passage or text. For normal reading rates (around 200-220 words per minute) an acceptable level of comprehension is above 75%. and content-area learning. Remedial & Special Education, 22(2), 66-75. Walker, H. M., Colvin, G., & Ramsey, E. (1995). Antisocial behavior in school: Strategies and best practices. Pacific Grove Pacific Grove, residential and resort city (1990 pop. 16,117), Monterey co., W central Calif., on a point where Monterey Bay meets the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1889. , CA: Brooks/Cole. Whicker, K., Nunnery, J., & Bol, L. (1997). Cooperative learning in the secondary mathematics classroom The Journal of Educational Research, 91,42-48. Wolford, P. L., Heward, W. L., & Alber, S. R. (2001). Teaching middle school students with learning disabilities to recruit peer assistance during cooperative learning group activities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16(3), 161-173. Greenwood, C. R. (2001). Classwide peer tutoring learning management system. Wade Fish, Ph.D. is Assistant Professor of Special Education at the University of Texas at Tyler History The University of Texas at Tyler was originally founded in 1971 as Tyler State College. It was renamed Texas Eastern College in 1975, and then joined the University of Texas System in 1979. |
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