Controlling drones at war: the global war on terrorism has seen the use of drones (or unmanned aerial vehicles--UAVs) by US-led coalition forces down to the platoon level. The operations of tactical drones are directed from ground control stations that are often on the front lines.

A UAV by itself doesn't do anything for anybody other than sit on the ramp and provide shade,>> Dyke Weatherington, deputy director of the US Department of Defense's Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Planning Task Force told reporters after the publication of The Unmanned Aircraft Systems Roadmap 2005-2030 in August 2005. <<I need an integrated capability to do the mission. [...] That's a vehicle, that's sensor systems, that may be weapons, that's communication systems, that's command and control, that's trained operators. All those elements are critical to deliver the capability.>>

The operations of high altitude long endurance aircraft, such as the Northrop Grumman RQ-4A Global Hawk and the medium altitude long endurance variety, such as the Israel Aircraft Industries' Heron, are mounted from air bases with permanent runways and directed from a static ground control station (GCS). Tactical UAVs deployed at the formation level typically have a range of a few hundred kilometres and are controlled from stations that are usually vehicle-mounted or containerised. Hand-launched mini drones employed at the sub-unit or unit level usually have a range of only a few kilometres and are directed from a GCS that, depending on the mission, is either mounted in a light utility vehicle or more often man-portable.

Most military drones have a command and control system that allows the flight to be pre-programmed and piloted remotely when required, although some are totally autonomous. The C2 system usually consists of a communications link, applications software to control the aircraft and its payload and navigation equipment that includes a global positioning system.

The American Department of Defense's UAV Roadmap notes, <<The control elements and functions of the early 1990s ground station can now be accommodated into laptops. The trend will continue with miniaturisation of processing and memory storage devices. Consolidation of capabilities into smaller packages reduces production costs, logistics footprint and sustainment support costs.>>

The operation of the German Army's tactical drones provides a good example. The Luna, built by EMT of Penzberg, has flown more than 1700 missions in difficult weather and adverse terrain over Kosovo, Macedonia and Afghanistan since its first operational flight in March 2000. With a range of more than 65 km and an endurance of more than three hours the Luna is deployed by the army at brigade level. The Luna system consists of ten air vehicles, two control stations and two portable launchers. The stations can either be mounted in a container, installed in an armoured Duro 6 x 6 cross-country vehicle or integrated into the 4 x 4 Wolf light utility vehicle. The aircraft's flight profile is programmed onto a digital map on the GCS computer using a mouse. The software advises the operator if a waypoint is out of the line-of-sight of the GCS or if there is higher ground between two waypoints. With the mission profile downloaded onto the Luna's flight computer via a datalink the bird can then fly a mission with no operator guidance, although the operator can take control if a subject of interest appears on the GCS monitor or the mission needs to be changed. The datalink has a range of approximately 80 km--this can be extended by using a second Luna as a relay station. When the mission is completed the Luna lands fully autonomously in a net or by parachute.

The same mission planning and flight control software is used on EMT's Aladin mini-UAV, which is deployed at unit level. The three-kilo Aladin has a range of five km and an endurance of about 50 minutes. After being selected in early 2002 to meet an army requirement for a hand-launched drone with man-portable GCS, the manufacturer delivered several pre-production systems that have flown more than 220 missions in Afghanistan. In September 2005 EMT began delivering 115 Aladin production systems; each of which consists of a GCS and two air vehicles. The GCS comprises a touch-sensitive tablet computer, a datalink and a digital data recorder.

The CGS developed by South Africa's Advanced Technologies & Engineering (ATE) for the Vulture tactical UAV is another example of a brigade level system. In South African Army service the containerised Vulture CGS is mounted on the back of a 6 x 6 flatbed cargo truck and manned by a crew of four: navigator, observer, signaller and artillery technical assistant. The Vulture is used primarily to locate targets and direct artillery fire. A South African Tellumat Cbacs provides the secure C-band digital video and datalink between the GCS and the UAV. The Cbacs has a range of 200 km and is designed to be resistant to jamming.

Spurred on by the Gwot the US Army is implementing a plan to deploy UAVs across its force spectrum. The army's longest serving UAV is the Northrop Grumman/Israel Aircraft Industries RQ-5A Hunter, which has flown more than 14,000 hours on operational missions over the Balkans and Iraq. The service has three Hunter companies employed at the corps level--each consisting of six aircraft, three ground control stations, support vehicles and equipment.

The Hunter is used with the GCS 3000 developed by IAI's Malat UAV Division to control the Heron and Hunter drones. The GCS 2000 is configured to control IAI's Heron, Ranger and Searcher. Each GCS 3000 is able to control one or two aircraft in relay flight. Although the GCS has three control bays and an optional intelligence bay only two operators are necessary to control a mission. An operator at the pilot control bay flies the drone while the operator at the observer control bay manages its sensors. The mission can be planned and its progress monitored on a digital map display at the navigation control bay while an operator at the intelligence bay is able to monitor data and control its dissemination. A Remote Video Terminal (RVT) is available that can be installed at the GCS or at a tactical operations centre. When connected to a directional antenna the RVT can receive signals from the aircraft out to 40 km. IAI/Malat also produces a Compact Ground Control Station that can be configured for forward deployment or installation in an aircraft or small ship.

The service is modernising its Hunter fleet to the multi-mission MQ-5 configuration, which will extend the drone's endurance and allow it carry weapons such as the Viper Strike derivative of the Northrop Grumman Bat. From 2009 the US Army plans to supplement and eventually replace the Hunter with the Warrior Extended Range/Multi-Purpose (ER/MP). The Army plans to acquire eleven Warrior systems, each comprising twelve aircraft, five GCSs and support equipment. Total programme value for the SDD and production phases is estimated to be about $ one billion. The SDD phase is scheduled to last about 48 months with an initial operational capability anticipated in fiscal year 2009. In early October 2005 prime contractor General Atomics awarded AAI an estimated $ 30 million system development and demonstration contract to provide its One System GCS for the project.

AAI initially developed the One System GCS for the Army's Shadow RQ-7 programme. The Shadow is employed at the brigade level and the Army leadership has directed that every manoeuvre brigade in the service should be equipped with the type. Since entering service in 2001 the GCS has logged more than 100,000 hours of operational and training use. Each Shadow system, operated by a 22-strong platoon, consists of four aircraft, two GCSs with ground data terminals (GDT), one portable GCS with portable GDT, a launcher, two automated landing systems and support equipment. The platoon is carried in three Humvees with shelters, two troop-carrying Humvees, one aircraft transport vehicle and three trailers.

AAI's believes that it is making good progress towards its goal to have the One System chosen by the Department of Defense as the common GCS across the services. The aim is not new: as early as 1997 the Department of Defense's UAV Joint Programme Office initiated the Tactical Control System project to develop and field a common GCS that could be used with all present and future land-based and ship-based UAVs in US service. The AAI One System GCS was used to control the Warrior during the ER/MP systems capabilities demonstration in early 2005 and has also controlled the Hunter air vehicle. A demonstration controlling a US Marine Corps Pioneer tactical UAV is scheduled in 2006.

The fielding of a common GCS is intended to simplify training, operations and logistics. Each year approximately 600 trainees use the 22 Shadow and 10 Hunter GCS simulators during the 23-week UAV operator's course at the US Army's UAV Training Centre at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Students attend the Federal Aviation Administration's ground school to ensure they understand how to safely manage operations in skies that are also used by manned military and civilian aircraft. Two operators control the aircraft--the one in the left system flies the aircraft while the right seat operator controls the sensors and, if fitted, weapons. Students are taught to be both aircraft and sensor operators and fly ten simulated missions and another ten operating live aircraft on each position.

Training on mini-drones is not as complex. The AeroVironment RQ-11A Raven, the Army's newest drone, is in such demand by commanders in Iraq that in 2004 new systems were sent straight from the United States to a base in Kuwait where soldiers were put through a two-week operator's course. The hand-launched Raven, with a wingspan of 1.37 metres and a weight of 1.72 kg, is used at the 'tip of the spear' by platoons and companies. It has a maximum line-of-sight range of 15 km and an endurance of up to 90 minutes.

The Raven had its origins in the Army's Military Operations in Urban Terrain Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration programme. After evaluating four AeroVironment FQM-151 Pointers bought in 1999 the Army asked the company to develop a smaller GCS that would be truly man-portable. In parallel with this work AeroVironment developed a smaller system. In 2003 the service expedited the procurement of the Raven to meet the urgent operational requirements of its forces in Afghanistan and the first units were equipped in theatre only 20 weeks after the contract was awarded. Each Raven system (comprising three air vehicles, one 17.7-kg GCS, a remote video terminal, day and night sensors, batteries and ground support equipment) is carried in two suitcase-sized packages.

Since 2004 magnesium-cased Panasonic Toughbook computers have been fielded as an optional part of the GCS. These use FalconView joint mapping software to provide an overlay on a five-colour map display of the video image from the aircraft, as well as on-the-fly, drag-and-drop waypoint editing. Another recent addition is a Sony Handycam video camera to record Raven imagery for later analysis. The Army has ordered more than 2000 Raven air vehicles and in 2005 selected the improved Raven B for its Small UAV programme, which is expected to field more than 1328 systems each of three air vehicles. The Raven is also in service with the US Special Operations Command and is being evaluated by other American services.

In mid-2005 the Army began using the Tactical Micro Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, built by Applied Research Associates, in Iraq. Three aircraft in their container tubes, together with the laptop GCS and spare components, weigh 5.62 kg.

The other services employ their own mini-drones. For missions at the company, platoon and squad level the US Marine Corps uses the Dragon Eye Interim-Small Unit Remote Scouting System, developed by the Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory and now produced by AeroVironment. Like the Raven, the 2.68-kg Dragon Eye and its 3.18-kg GCS are carried in man-portable cases. The GCS map display can be attached to the operator's wrist or forearm. The service plans to acquire 467 systems each with three air vehicles and a GCS.

The US Air Force employs the small Desert Hawk as its Force Protection Airborne Surveillance System to enhance the security of air bases and other installations in Iraq. Drones provide an effective means to cover a large amount of terrain that would be difficult, if not impossible, for troops or surveillance devices on the ground to monitor. Each system consists of six aircraft and a laptop GCS that uses a modified version of the same software as the Dragon Eye.

In November 2005 Israel's Elbit Systems received a $ five million contract to supply six Skylark IV mini-systems to the Australian Army for operations in Iraq. The company was able to meet the short delivery timeframe because the Skylark was already in production for the Israel Defence Force. Each system includes three air vehicles and a GCS that uses a new data link developed by Spectralink.

With drones developing so fast, it naturally was impossible to mention them all (and their ground control stations) here, like the Sagem Sperwer, which is also being used in Afghanistan. However, this article provides a broad view of the typical modus operandi of drones.