Conflict resolution and peer mediation: pathways to safer schools.Most educators will agree that finding ways to resolve conflict peaceably peace·a·ble adj. 1. Inclined or disposed to peace; promoting calm: They met in a peaceable spirit. 2. Peaceful; undisturbed. in America's schools may be our primary challenge. As waves of violence and incidents of racial and societal unrest spill over Verb 1. spill over - overflow with a certain feeling; "The children bubbled over with joy"; "My boss was bubbling over with anger" bubble over, overflow seethe, boil - be in an agitated emotional state; "The customer was seething with anger" 2. into our classrooms, we must take a closer look at the process for building safer, more harmonious schools. Conflict Resolution and Peer Mediation Defined Conflict resolution is a method or strategy that enables people to interact with each other in positive ways in order to resolve their differences. Peer mediation programs are based on a foundation of applied conflict resolution. Such programs empower students to share responsibility for creating a safe, secure school environment. Mediators help their peers to summarize the main points of their dispute and puzzle out possible solutions. Schoolchildren schoolchildren school npl → écoliers mpl; (at secondary school) → collégiens mpl; lycéens mpl schoolchildren school learn essential skills, such as intervention and conflict prevention. Those who study conflict resolution generally identify its origin with Mary Parker Follett's research in the 1920s. Follett concentrated on "problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. as integration of the needs of the bargainers" (Follett, 1941; Fogg, 1985). Since that time, the field of conflict resolution has expanded as a tool for business management, intergroup in·ter·group adj. Being or occurring between two or more social groups: intergroup relations; intergroup violence. and community mediation, divorce, juvenile justice, civil courts and international negotiations. A Theoretical or Research Base The research base for conflict resolution and peer mediation includes the theories of Jean Piaget Noun 1. Jean Piaget - Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children (1896-1980) Piaget , Lev Vygotsky Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (Russian: Лев Семёнович Выготский) (November 17 (November 5 Old Style), 1896 – June 11, 1934) was a Soviet developmental , Albert Bandura Albert Bandura (b. 4 December, 1925 in Mundare, Canada) is a psychologist specialising in social cognitive theory and self-efficacy. Education Bandura graduated from the University of British Columbia with the Bolocan Award in psychology, and then obtained his M.A. and Kurt Lewin Kurt Zadek Lewin (September 9,1890 - February 12,1947), a German-born psychologist, is one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology. Lewin is often recognized as the "founder of social psychology" and was one of the first researchers to study group . Morton Deutsch Morton Deutsch (b. February 4, 1920), is a social psychologist and researcher in conflict resolution. He received a B.S. from the City College of New York in 1939 and his M.A. in 1940 from the University of Pennsylvania. , David and Roger Johnson Roger Johnson can refer to:
During middle childhood, children continually assess, weigh and judge their experiences in school, absorbing new behaviors into their existing knowledge. Piaget's cognitive development theory states that children will assimilate and accommodate new experiences into ones previously learned. The added context of social interaction, especially with one's peers, enhances the cognitive development process. Essentially, children need to watch adults think through problems so that they can practice those newly observed skills themselves (Seifert, 1993). Students hone these skills when they verbally and mentally work their way through the problem-solving process. Vygotsky's theories on children's thinking emphasized a process in which children shared problem-solving experiences with a teacher, parent or peer. As a result, children's own language and thought intermingled and served as the vehicle for their own development (Vygotsky, 1962). Social learning theorists, particularly Albert Bandura and Kurt Lewin, contributed to the research base. Bandura ban`dur´a n. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. emphasized that children are essential actors and agents in their own learning and behavior as they model, observe and duplicate responses to a social situation (Seifert, 1993; Catron & Allen, 1993). Furthermore, those who observe conflict resolution or peer mediation confirm that an intellectual and emotional impact results when a potentially dangerous conflict is resolved and disputants "save face" and continue with their school lives. Kurt Lewin's field theory is of special interest. Specifically, Lewin warned that "one has to face the education situation with all its social and cultural implications as one concrete dynamic whole . . . analysis must be a 'gestalt-theoretical' one" (Maruyama, 1992). Lewin believed that the individual in a school setting is affected by personal and environmental variables that have an impact on student behavioral outcomes (Maruyama, 1992). Equally important is the way that authority figures structure the environment and reward the system--what Lewin calls the "social climate" (Maruyama, 1992). Accordingly, Lewin delineated the concept of conflict as a situation in which forces acting on the individual move in opposite directions. For several decades, Morton Deutsch (Deutsch, 1949, 1973, 1991) and David and Roger Johnson (Johnson & Johnson, 1979, 1989, 1991) have emphasized that cooperative, rather than competitive, relationships within the classroom's social milieu create the constructive, positive environment that fosters true learning and conflict resolution. The Johnsons believe that students can learn to respect others' viewpoints through controversy experiences. The structured controversy approach can enhance and open students' minds to differing or opposing views (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Used as a corequisite with conflict resolution, cooperative learning cooperative learning Education theory A student-centered teaching strategy in which heterogeneous groups of students work to achieve a common academic goal–eg, completing a case study or a evaluating a QC problem. See Problem-based learning, Socratic method. permits students to practice skills, communicate and solve problems. Their social/emotional skills are likewise enhanced as they learn to listen to the ideas of others and to clarify, summarize, gather and analyze data. Such skills encourage reflective listening, compromise and an honest expression of feelings (Nattiv, Render, Lemire & Render, 1989). One current education model has been described as a peace education curriculum; that is, it helps children understand and learn to resolve conflicts in peaceful ways. A multi-disciplinary group of researchers (Spodek & Brown, 1993) recommends that peace education curriculum teach children skills in negotiating, conflict resolution and problem-solving. An interrelated in·ter·re·late tr. & intr.v. in·ter·re·lat·ed, in·ter·re·lat·ing, in·ter·re·lates To place in or come into mutual relationship. in focus would include cooperative learning, conflict resolution and education for peace (Deutsch, 1991). The concept of peace education is multifaceted and cross-disciplinary, including peace and social justice, economic well-being, political participation, nonviolence, conflict resolution and concern for the environment (Stomfay-Stitz, 1993). Objectives for Peer Mediation A peer mediation program's first objective is to ensure that all students have learned the basic skills required to resolve conflicts. Usually, a guidance counselor guidance counselor Child psychology A school worker trained to screen, evaluate and advise students on career and academic matters or teacher supervises 15-20 hours of training. Peer mediators may be nominated by teachers or chosen by peers. Johnson and Johnson suggest that all students serve as peer mediators after mastering the basic skills. Peer mediators are assigned specific days and hours during which they are "on call" to handle conflicts that arise throughout the school (Johnson & Johnson, 1991). Complementary goals would include teaching respect for the differences of others and encouraging attitudes and values required for a harmonious classroom. In Montgomery County, Maryland Montgomery County of the U.S. state of Maryland is situated just north of Washington, D.C. and Southwest of Baltimore. It is one of the most affluent counties in the nation[1], and has the highest percentage (29. , the basic program emphasizes sensitivity to cultural diversity and provides mediation services for students fluent in Spanish and Vietnamese. A federal court order to desegregate de·seg·re·gate v. de·seg·re·gat·ed, de·seg·re·gat·ing, de·seg·re·gates v.tr. 1. To abolish or eliminate segregation in. 2. schools in Westchester County, New York '' Westchester County is a primarily suburban county located in the U.S. state of New York with about 950,000 residents. It is part of the New York Metropolitan Area. It was named after Chester, in England, and the county seat is White Plains. , sparked interest in peer mediation in that community. Their middle schools and high schools instituted such programs in 1987 (National Peace Foundation, 1991). Basic Skills for Peer Mediation One model program, Peace Works, developed by the Peace Education Foundation, provides a student mediation manual that carefully explains the basic skills for peer mediation. The program urges students to listen carefully, be fair, ask how each disputant feels, keep what they are told confidential and mediate in private. At the same time, they should not try to place blame, ask who started it, take sides or give advice (Schmidt, Friedman & Marvel, 1991). Benefits of Peer Mediation Strategies to prevent conflicts and identify situations that could provoke violence often include students, parents and school personnel--truly the entire school community. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of City's Project SMART teaches alternatives to violence, focusing on student/teacher conflicts. The program resulted in fewer incidents of vandalism and calls to police (National Peace Foundation, 1991). Peer mediation may also include intervention strategies for situations with the potential for conflict, such as play behavior and playground disputes. Researchers criticized school staffs' lack of concern in fully addressing bullying as a widespread problem (Hazler, Hoover & Oliver, 1992). An older study revealed that victimization victimization Social medicine The abuse of the disenfranchised–eg, those underage, elderly, ♀, mentally retarded, illegal aliens, or other, by coercing them into illegal activities–eg, drug trade, pornography, prostitution. by bullies reaches its highest level during the middle school years (Hazler, Hoover & Oliver, 1991). In a videotape describing the Conflict Manager Program, a former bully describes how, as a peer mediator, he slowly came to understand his victims' viewpoints and how his behavior harmed the weaker and smaller students (Community Board of San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden , 1992). Bullying should receive wider attention in school peer mediation programs. Students, faculty and administrators who participated in a detailed program at Greer Elementary School elementary school: see school. in Charlottesville, Virginia, reported positive results. Teachers reported that "pressure on teachers to serve as disciplinarians" decreased as a result of the program. The 5th-grade students themselves reported using "creative solutions when given the opportunity." They came to show greater respect for each other as they grew more adept at using their communication and problem-solving skills. The researcher recommended that peer mediation and conflict resolution skills be infused or "embedded in the entire curriculum and philosophy of a school." In cases where "the decision-making in the class is teacher-dictated, the program would be ineffective" (Stuart, 1991). In a second study at a rural elementary school in West Virginia, the school counselor taught conflict resolution and peer mediation skills to 80 5th-graders. Results showed a decrease in behavior problems in the classroom, on the playground and in referrals to the principal's office (Messing, 1992). Schools continue to report their success with conflict resolution and individual peer mediation programs. While many results are based on anecdotal evidence anecdotal evidence, n information obtained from personal accounts, examples, and observations. Usually not considered scientifically valid but may indicate areas for further investigation and research. , several are based on data collected from students, faculty and administrators. A pilot program in Minnesota that was based on the Peacemaker Program reported that the "frequency of student-student conflicts . . . dropped 80 percent" while conflicts referred to the principal were reduced to zero (Johnson, Johnson, Dudley & Burnett, 1992). A Wisconsin middle school reported that 189 successful student disputes were mediated during the first six months of its program (Koch & Miller, 1987). One researcher described a "ripple effect ripple effect Epidemiology See Signal event. " from the programs. Parents and students indicated that they were resolving their home conflicts "in new and more productive ways" (Lane & McWhirter, 1991) and with noticeable benefits to sibling relationships (Gentry & Benenson, 1993). Peer relationships are powerful ones, based on social interactions that can help others to learn, share and help each other. Each year of development makes the process more complex and inclusive. Peer relationships will eventually supplant the influence of family for children. Thus, autonomy, achievement and social skills are all influenced by peer relationships (Benard, 1990). Success of System-wide and State-wide Programs In recent years, entire school systems have adopted detailed plans for conflict resolution and peer mediation. The school system in Ann Arbor, Michigan  “Ann Arbor” redirects here. For other uses, see Ann Arbor (disambiguation). Ann Arbor is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. , has included the Conflict Manager Program in all schools and summer neighborhood community centers (National Peace Foundation, 1991). Several national organizations are helping to disseminate instructional and training materials, and also are serving as clearinghouses and networks for those interested in conflict resolution and peer mediation. Educators for Social Responsibility (ESR ESR - Eric S. Raymond ) reported greater demand for training in their Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP RCCP Rough Cut Capacity Plan RCCP Regional Centre on Conflict Prevention (Jordan) RCCP Radar Control Computer Program RCCP Resolving Conflict Creatively Programs RCCP Redundancy Chance-Constrained Programming ). Education organizations have also joined the effort. Phi Delta Kappa Phi Delta Kappa is an international professional organization for educators. Journal The Phi Delta Kappan is a professional journal for education, published by Phi Delta Kappa. and the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, or ASCD, is a membership-based nonprofit organization founded in 1943. It has more than 175,000 members in 135 countries, including superintendents, supervisors, principals, teachers, professors of education, and have planned professional development institutes. The National Association for Mediation in Education (NAME), the Consortium for Peace, Research, Education and Development (COPRED COPRED Consortium on Peace Research Education and Development (now the Peace and Justice Studies Association) ), the National Institute for Dispute Resolution (NIDR NIDR National Institute of Dental Research (now NIDCR) NIDR National Institute for Dispute Resolution NIDR National Institute of Disaster Restoration NIDR Network Information Discovery and Retrieval NIDR Nuclear Interactions and Dosimetry ) and the Children's Creative Response to Conflict (CCRC Noun 1. CCRC - an agency in the Department of Defense that is a national center for research on all aspects of injury control and casualty care Casualty Care Research Center ) all work to enhance knowledge and research on conflict resolution and peer mediation. Ohio deserves attention as a leader in the creation of community and school-based projects under a model known as the Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management (OCDRCM). A three-year data collection and evaluation project is currently underway to assess the effect of pilot programs in mediation and conflict resolution in 17 schools throughout the state (OCDRCM, 1993). In New Mexico, a state-wide model included over 60 schools (K-12), in addition to juvenile justice, family and victim offender mediation programs (New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution, 1993). Conclusion Peer mediation programs in the schools offer alternatives to violence. Instead of physical fights, threats and verbal abuse verbal abuse Psychology A form of emotional abuse consisting of the use of abusive and demeaning language with a spouse, child, or elder, often by a caregiver or other person in a position of power. See Child abuse, Emotional abuse, Spousal abuse. , students are taught specific communications and conflict resolution skills. These skills lead students and their peer mediators through a process of critical thinking and problem-solving in order to arrive at a mutually beneficial solution. Susan Schultz of the Ann Arbor Public Schools assessed the benefits that accrued from their system-wide initiative: Teaching conflict management skills is good. For the children to see adults around them using conflict management skills is better. For both the children and the adults to use these skills at school, at home, at work, and at play is best. (National Peace Foundation, 1991) Clearly, conflict resolution and peer mediation offer viable opportunities for an entire school community to create a safer, more harmonious world. At the same time, growing numbers of educators have recognized that, through such programs, students are learning skills that have wider applications. These skills have the potential to create safer and more peaceful homes, schools and communities. References Benard, B. (1990). The case for peers. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. ED 327-755. Catron, C. E., & Allen, J. (1993). Early childhood curriculum. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Community Board of San Francisco. (1992). Conflict Manager Program, videotape. Deutsch, M. (1949). A theory of cooperation and competition. Human Relations, 2, 129-152. Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Deutsch, M. (1991). Educating beyond hate. Peace, Environment, and Education, 2(4), 3-19. Fogg, R. W. (1985). Dealing with conflict: A repertoire of creative, peaceful approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 29(2), 330-358. Follett, M. P. (1941). The collected papers of Mary Parker Follett Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) was an American social worker, consultant, and author of books on democracy, human relations, and management. She worked as a management and political theorist, introducing such phrases as "conflict resolution," "authority and power," and "the . London: Pittman. Gentry, D. B., & Benenson, W. A. (1993). School-to-home transfer of conflict management skills among school-age children. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 4(2), 67-73. Hazler, R., Hoover, J. H., & Oliver, R. (1991). Student perceptions of victimization by bullies in school. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 29, 143-150. Hazler, R., Hoover, J. H., & Oliver, R. (November, 1992). What kids say about bullying. Executive Educator, 14(11), 20-22. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1979). Circles of learning. Edina, MN: Interaction Book. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina, MN: Interaction Book. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1991). Teaching students to be peacemakers This article is about the pacifist organization. For other meanings, see Peacemaker (disambiguation). Peacemakers was an American pacifist organization. . Edina, MN: Interaction Book. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., Dudley, B., & Burnett, R. (1992). Teaching students to be peer mediators. Educational Leadership, 50(1), 10-13. Koch, M. S., & Miller, S. (1987). Resolving student conflicts with student mediators. Principal, 66, 59-61. Lane, P. S., & McWhirter, J. J. (1992). A peer mediation model: Conflict resolution for elementary and middle school children. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling guidance and counseling, concept that institutions, especially schools, should promote the efficient and happy lives of individuals by helping them adjust to social realities. , 27, 15-23. Maruyama, G. (1992). Lewin's impact on education: Instilling cooperation and conflict management skills in school children. Journal of Social Issues, 48(2), 155-159. Messing, J. K. (1992). Impact of conflict resolution curriculum on elementary school students' perception of conflict and problem solving. Charleston, WV: Appalachia Educational Laboratory. National Peace Foundation (1991, Fall). Where does peace education stand today? Peace Reporter, 1-12. Nattiv, A., Render, G. F., Lemire, D., & Render, K. R. (1989). Conflict resolution and interpersonal skill building through the use of cooperative learning. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 28, 96-101. New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution. (1993). Brochure and Publications. Albuquerque, NM: Author. Ohio Commission on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management. (1993). Model school program in conflict resolution and peer mediation. Columbus, OH: Author. Schmidt, F., Friedman, A., & Marvel, J. (1992). Mediation for kids: Kids in dispute settlement. Miami, FL: Peace Education Foundation. Seifert, K. L. (1993). Cognitive development and early childhood education. In B. Spodek (Ed.), Handbook of research on the education of young children (pp. 9-23). New York: Macmillan. Spodek, B., & Brown, P. C. (1993). Curriculum alternatives in early childhood education. In B. Spodek (Ed.), Handbook of research on the education of young children (pp. 91-104). New York: Macmillan. Stomfay-Stitz, A. (1993). Peace education in America 1828-1990. Sourcebook for education and research. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Scarecrow goes to Wizard of Oz to get brains. [Am. Lit.: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz] See : Ignorance Scarecrow can’t live up to his name. [Am. Lit.: The Wonderful Wizard of Oz; Am. Press. Stuart, L. A. (1991). Conflict resolution using mediation skills in the elementary schools. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia. ED 333 258. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Aline M. Stomfay-Stitz is Associate Professor, Education Department, Christopher Newport University Christopher Newport University, locally abbreviated as CNU, is a small liberal arts university located in Newport News, Virginia. It was established in 1960 as a two-year school of the College of William and Mary. , Newport News, Virginia Newport News is an independent city in Virginia. It is on the southwestern end of the Virginia Peninsula, on the north shore of the James River extending to its mouth at Hampton Roads. The origin of the unusual name of "Newport News" is unclear. . |
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