Conclusion.

This chapter has reviewed recent literature on female participation in education in SubSaharan Africa. The factors that constrain female education have been identified. Hyde's (1989) review summarized the major constraints to girls' educational participation and achievement in the region. The present review indicates that a deeper understanding of some of the same factors and an elabouration of others has developed (see Figure 2.6 for a summary of factors that influence female education).

[FIGURE 2.6 OMITTED]

The socioeconomic and sociocultural factors discussed here can be further characterized as limiting the demand for female education. At the household and community levels, demand for female education is limited, particularly in poorer communities and rural areas. Poverty is a major factor depressing the demand. Where resources are scarce and choices have to be made, boys are more likely to be sent to school. Sociocultural factors are a major deterrent to schooling for girls. Some parents hold very strong negative views or are ambivalent about girls' schooling and see little relevance in formal education for girls. The persistence of certain institutions and cultural practices, notably early marriage and the institution of bride price, further limits the opportunities for girls to attend and complete their schooling. Income from girls' labour is appreciable from an early age and further limits their educational opportunities.

The school-related factors and the political and institutional factors are supply-side characteristics. On the supply-side, education systems reinforce gender inequities by strengthening gender stereotypes about female roles and low academic expectations. The problems of girls' education cannot be divorced from the general problems of educational supply and quality in the region, particularly in poorer and rural areas. Despite efforts to increase female access to schools little has been done to improve the hostile learning environment. There is much concern about female safety directly related to sexual violence in schools and also to the to high levels of schoolgirl pregnancy. Educational policies and other political and institutional factors also constrain female education. The fiscal crisis has had a devastating effect on the public financing of education, and the continuing high population growth rate has further exacerbated an already regrettable situation.

Demand and supply factors influencing female schooling are interrelated and should be viewed as a unitary concern. While the sociocultural and socioeconomic factors are difficult to address, these can be dealt with at the same time as the supply factors. Research indicates that in countries where gross primary enrollments are low, girls' educational participation is also low (King and Hill 1991, Colclough and Lewin 1993). This further reinforces the need to focus attention on actions that will enhance female education. This review demonstrates that enough knowledge exists to point the way towards targeted interventions to accelerate girls' education in the region. Research must provide policymakers and planners with timely and accurate information on the issues, and show how these can be tackled. The following chapter presents an overview of some promising interventions.