Concerns of newly arrived immigrant students: implications for school counselors.

The concerns of newly arrived immigrant students include the need for English language acquisition, the lack of social support networks and of social acceptance, racial labeling and categorization, acquiring new learning styles, post-traumatic stress syndrome, different cultural scripts, and the typical development issues that all students face. Also addressed are the typical responses of some educators to newly arrived immigrant students with these issues. The author also discusses implications for school counselors and how school counselors can address the concerns of newly arrived immigrant students at the national, state, and district or local levels.

**********

As immigrant populations expand in major urban areas throughout the United States, public school systems will be serving growing numbers of immigrant students. School systems in California, New York, Texas, Florida, Illinois, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New Mexico, and Pennsylvania will be most affected (Kellogg, 1988, p. 204).

Kellogg (1988) issued this statement almost 15 years ago. It is just as true today as it was back then. For example, the most recent census data indicate that three of the above-mentioned states--California, Florida, and Texas--along with Georgia and Arizona--had the greatest population gain of any others in the years from 1990 to 2000 (Perry & Mackun, 2000). Further, cities such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Boston, Detroit, and Dallas all posted significant gains in population (Perry & Mackun). The majority of the 30 million immigrants (11% of the total population and 43% of all foreign-born residents) that came to the United States since 1990 settled in these cities or in others in the aforementioned states.

It follows that, as a state's total immigrant population grows, so does the share of immigrant students in its school systems. In fact, the percentage of children of immigrants (children with at least one foreign-born parent) in school systems across the country rose from 6.3% in 1970 to nearly 20% in 1997 (Ruiz de Velasco & Fix, 2000). As is the case with officials who are responsible for other social services, the challenge is for leaders of affected school districts to ensure provision of the necessary academic and support services to an ever-increasing immigrant student population.

With specific regard to school counseling and guidance, districts and schools are challenged to ensure that counselors and counseling programs reflect a concern for the special needs of newly arrived immigrant students. McDonnell and Hill (1993) reminded school counseling practitioners that these students cannot be ignored because their numbers will continue to increase. In addition, these students will comprise a key segment of the future labor force in this country (McDonnell & Hill).

This article highlights the issues that concern newly arrived immigrant students from the guidance and counseling perspective, how school systems have responded to these issues, and the implications for school counselors concerning what can be done to better serve newly arrived immigrant students. For the purposes of this writing, newly arrived immigrant students are those who have arrived in this country within the 12 months prior to first enrollment in a U.S. public school.

ISSUES THAT CONCERN NEWLY ARRIVED IMMIGRANT STUDENTS

All newly arrived immigrant students do not face the same issues. Some concerns may be related to their specific countries of origin. For example, Haitian immigrant students might be confronted with racism for the first time while immigrant students from Kosovo might be concerned with the effects of war. Additionally, the circumstances under which some immigrants come to America can vary depending upon their particular financial or social status prior to moving here. Students who are immigrants from very privileged families have very different concerns and needs than those who come from poor families--even if their countries of origin are the same.

Nevertheless, according to the literature, there is a set of issues that many immigrant students, in general, face. Most notably, these issues include English language acquisition (Rong & Preissle, 1998), post-traumatic stress disorder (Jay, 2000), racial labeling and categorization (Perkins, 2000), different learning styles (Jay), inadequate social support networks (Cardenas & Taylor, 1993; James, 1997), lack of social acceptance (James), and cultural scripts that are new and unfamiliar to American school personnel (First, 1988; Perkins). In addition, newly arrived immigrant students are also concerned with the same developmental issues that all other students must face (Jay).

English Language Acquisition

Developing verbal and written competence in the English language is an important concern for newly arrived immigrant students (Jay, 2000; Rong & Preissle, 1998). At the very least, they require this competence in order to know and understand what is going on in their classrooms. Optimally, though, this competence will allow them to excel academically and also demonstrate their ability to perform just as well as they did in schools in their home countries and in their native languages. The rate at which newly arrived immigrant students acquire English language skills depends on a variety of factors such as age, length of time in this country, socioeconomic status, parental education, and residence location (Rong & Preissle).

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder

Many newly arrived immigrant students arrive here from countries (e.g., Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Haiti) that have been affected by war and other types of conflict (First, 1988). As a result, some of these students may have been firsthand witnesses of such occurrences as death, homelessness, and poverty. They may also know what it means to be forcibly and unwillingly separated from parents, friends, and other relatives (Jay, 2000). Further, some of these students may have been refugees. This is certainly the case for Sudanese students in the Omaha (Nebraska) public school system. As a result of these kinds of experiences, such students may exhibit the various symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder. These symptoms include--among others--flashbacks, avoidance of relationships and other social situations, irritability, insomnia, memory loss, and panic attacks (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).

Inadequate Social Support Networks

Because some newly arrived immigrant students may have left parents, friends, and other relatives behind in their home countries when moving to this country, they may no longer have an adequate social support network in place. Further, some of these students may be living in homes with relatives or friends that they barely even know. Inadequate social support networks result in isolation, fear, and grief (Cardenas & Taylor, 1993). Depression, confusion, hopelessness, frustration, and lowered self-esteem are also effects of an inadequate social support system (James, 1997).

Racial Labeling and Categorization

School records in the United States typically include information about a student's race. In their school records, students are often identified as White, Black, or Hispanic. This type of labeling might be new to many newly arrived immigrant students. Many of them are moving from countries where ethnic categories are more important than racial categories or where categorization is not even an issue at all. For example, in some Muslim countries, it is more important to be identified by sect--Sikh or Sunni--than it is to be identified by skin color. Newly arrived immigrant students must now learn how to become accustomed to racial labeling and categorization (Perkins, 2000). This may also mean assuming a new identity and sense of self according to race (Rong & Preissle, 1998). Related to this is the major challenge of figuring out how to be assimilated into American culture and society while simultaneously figuring out how to remain a part of one's original culture and heritage (Rong & Preissle).

Different Learning Styles

Learning and teaching takes on different forms in different countries. For example, in Haiti, students are taught by the rote method where they are expected to write down the teacher's words verbatim (Jay, 2000). This is in contrast to the teaching style of most American schools where taking notes in class may involve summarizing or simply writing down the basic gist of a teacher's thoughts. Newly arrived immigrant students must learn to adjust to this style of teaching and learning (Jay). They must also become accustomed to new types of tests such as the multiple-choice test. This type of test is not common in parts of the world outside of the United States.

Included in this issue of different teaching and learning styles is the need to help newly arrived immigrant students understand how American schools operate (Olsen & Jaramillo, 2000). Moving from one class to another, being taught by several different persons each day, timing (i.e., length) of classes and the school day, and the earning of academic credit may be new and foreign to the newly arrived immigrant student. Newly arrived immigrant students may need advice and assistance in coping with and adjusting to these modes of operation within American schools.

New and Different Cultural Scripts

First (1988) reminded us that some newly arrived immigrant students are entering "U. S. classrooms with cultural scripts modeled on the material and social environments of their homelands" (p. 206). Cultural scripts include the behaviors, ideas, thoughts, and roles that are peculiar to a particular culture. For example, in many countries, older children may leave school at a certain age in order to help raise younger siblings and to help contribute to the household income by working full-time. The cultural scripts of many newly arrived immigrant students are likely very different from those found here in the United States. For example, in the home countries of some newly arrived immigrant students, gender roles might be reversed; their societies might be more matriarchal than patriarchal in nature. These cultural scripts might also include values such as family interdependence, filial piety, respect for authority, and stoicism that run counter to dominant values in America (Perkins, 2000).

The challenge for newly arrived immigrant students is to manage discrepancies or differences between their own cultural values and those of the dominant school culture (James, 1997). They also may need advice and assistance in managing these same discrepancies between their cultural values and those of the society outside of the school environment.

Lack of Social Acceptance

Newly arrived immigrant students may be faced with the challenge of not being accepted by their peers and teachers when they first enter the American school system (James, 1997). This lack of acceptance might occur because of misunderstandings based on differences in language, dress, and patterns of speech. It might also occur because of unwillingness by peers and teachers to accept, understand, and learn about things that make newly arrived immigrant students unique. Often, lack of acceptance by peers and teachers can result in a diminished sense of self and of belonging (James).

Developmental Issues

Jay (2000) reminded us that newly arrived immigrant students face the same developmental issues that all students face. All students--newly arrived immigrant or not--must confront the challenges of transitioning between childhood and adulthood. For example, in adolescence, Eriksonian psychosocial theory asserts that this involves establishing a new identity by considering questions such as "who am I?" and "what is my reason for being?" It also involves exploring life goals and aspirations. These are all, essentially, developmental and existential issues. Because of their training in child development, school counselors are well positioned to assist newly arrived immigrant students in confronting these issues.

RESPONSES TO NEWLY ARRIVED IMMIGRANT STUDENTS

Some school districts simply overlook or ignore the needs of newly arrived immigrant students. However, for those that do attend to these needs, two responses have been identified: (a) schools created solely for these students (commonly known as newcomer schools) and (b) individual school-based initiatives such as transition programs or support groups that are contained within the larger school context (Feinberg, 2000). Neither of the latter two responses is counseling specific. Nevertheless, they still warrant an examination in this discussion.

Newcomer Schools

As of 1996-1997, there were seven newcomer high schools across the country. One such school is Liberty High School in New York City. Another is Newcomer High School in San Francisco, which was actually the first newcomer school when it opened in 1979 (Perkins, 2000). As noted previously, newcomer schools are those that only serve newly arrived immigrant students. In other words, these schools are strictly devoted to addressing the special needs of these students. This is done within the context of a complete educational program or state-approved curriculum. These schools are fully staffed by administration, teachers, counselors, and support personnel just as any other school. Students are expected to remain at such schools anywhere from one year to--in the case of high schools--the full 4 years. The length of attendance depends on the school and upon predetermined time limits on attendance.

With regard to counseling and guidance, these schools may or may not offer specific mental health or other social services. As a matter of fact, most of them focus more so on language issues than any other issues. Even when mental health and other social services are offered, they may not necessarily be guidance and counseling specific.

School-based Initiatives

School-based initiatives designed to help newly arrived immigrant students include a variety of services that addresses their special needs. These initiatives vary from school to school and from district to district. According to data from the Center for

Applied Linguistics (2000), there were more than 110 programs in 26 states that catered to the special needs of newly arrived immigrant students. Most of these programs are designed as separate programs within regular middle or high schools (Short, 2000). Many of them are full school-day programs, some are half day, and others are after school programs. For the most part, the instructional components of many of these programs focus on developing both language and academic skills so that students might eventually transfer to the regular ESL or bilingual programs within their schools or districts of origin (Short). Further, to assist newly arrived immigrant students with becoming more familiar with life in American public schools and American society, many of these school-based programs offer courses in cultural orientation.

Support groups are also an important component of some school-based initiatives. One example of a successful support group is the bicultural group offered at one Los Angeles public high school (Cardenas & Taylor, 1993). Newly arrived immigrant students in this group meet regularly during a set time in the school day. They discuss issues that are important to them such as difficulties with language, lack of adequate social support, and academic performance in a new environment and atmosphere of learning. Participants in this specific group claimed that is has been invaluable in providing them with the motivation and support that they need to be successful in their new school environments in this country (Cardenas & Taylor). One young man even shared how the support group was a key factor in convincing him to remain in school until graduation. For sure, there are other programs around the country that embody the same mission and produce the same results as this above-mentioned group.

It is important to note two things here. For one, it must be reiterated that each program in each school or district operates differently according to the needs of the local population of newly arrived immigrant students. No two programs are exactly alike. Second, it is notable that the literature has been silent on how school counselors in particular deal with the issues--separate and aside from initiatives developed and implemented by school administrators--that newly arrived immigrant students bring along when they enroll in American public schools. Greater emphasis has been placed on academic and language proficiency while lesser emphasis has been placed on the mental health and social concerns of these students.

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELORS

The issues of newly arrived immigrant students infer several implications for the school counseling profession on the national level, the state level, and on the district/local school level.

National Level

It would be important for the national professional organization of school counselors, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA), to more explicitly state its intention with regards to serving newly arrived immigrant students. This needs to be done as a matter of urgency given the special needs of these students and their sheer numbers in some school districts. ASCA can lead the way in addressing the concerns of newly arrived immigrant students in academic circles by going beyond general statements in its strategic plan and in its code of ethics. A specific position statement concerning the issues of newly arrived immigrant students can demonstrate a proactive stance by ASCA.

ASCA has already developed other position statements on a number of school counseling-related issues such as cross-multicultural counseling, special needs students, and students-at-risk. However, none of these statements refers specifically to the concerns of immigrant students. A position statement dealing with the issues of newly arrived immigrant students would go beyond the current ASCA statement on cross/multicultural counseling by mentioning a commitment to ensuring that they have equal access to services and opportunities that allow for their adequate adjustment and settlement into schools in this country. Of course, such a statement--like all other ASCA position statements found on its Web site at www.schoolcounselor.org--would also include a rationale, a description of the school counselor's role, and a basic summary.

From the standpoint of training, the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Education Programs (CACREP) can influence counselor education programs to prepare school counselors to be more adept at serving newly arrived immigrant students. Counselor education programs, especially those in or near major metropolitan areas such as New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Philadelphia can be encouraged to offer more than one single course in multiculturalism and diversity (First, 1988). Course offerings might be expanded to include more intense study of demography, cultural nuances, and the history of the countries that newly arrived immigrant students are coming from (First). For example, in a cultural history class, the focus might be on the legacy of the peoples of Latin America, Asia, and the Caribbean since it is a well-known fact that the greater majority of immigrants to the United States are arriving from those regions. Of course too, in such a class, the relationship between history and counseling would have to be emphasized.

The main point is that adjusting counselor education programs to more adequately prepare school counselors to work with newly arrived immigrant students is of utmost importance with regards to effectiveness in the work of these counselors. CACREP, as the accrediting body for counselor education programs, can be influential in bringing about this adjustment.

State Level

At the state level, guidance and counseling efforts to assist newly arrived immigrant students can be orchestrated by state education officials. Specific laws and mandates can be drafted and implemented by such officials in order to ensure that all students within a particular state have equal access to available transition programs. Such laws and mandates would also ensure that all such programs within that state are of the same quality, content, and methodology with regards to guidance and counseling components.

In Florida, for example, one such state law or mandate could require that all schools provide cultural orientation classes for newly arrived immigrant students within a certain number of days after enrollment, for a specified period of time, and if the population of such students exceeds a certain number or percentage of the total school population. Other than Florida, new laws and mandates might be especially urgent in states such as California and Texas where the percentages of newly arrived immigrant students continue to steadily increase.

All in all, specific laws and mandates would ensure consistency between programs in the same state. Further, they would help lessen the instances of piece-meal, individually school-based approaches.

District/Local Level

District officials with responsibility for guidance and school counseling can develop and conduct regular in-service professional development programs for the counselors in their schools (James, 1997). Appropriate in-service professional development might focus on such things as how to more accurately assess and diagnose the needs of each individual newly arrived immigrant student in culturally sensitive ways. In-service professional development might also take the form of workshops to teach about cultural adjustment. In a district such as Orange County (Florida), for example, these workshops might also focus learning about the culture and history of the countries such as Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Haiti where immigrants in that district mainly originate. Regular in-service professional development would allow school counselors to remain current in their knowledge and level of proficiency as far as newly arrived immigrant students are concerned.

Another example of how districts can implement a system-wide approach is by setting up centralized intake centers--coordinated and run by school counselors--for newly arrived immigrant students. At these centers, school counselors could have information about area schools readily available and on-hand when immigrant students and their parents first come in to register for enrollment (First, 1988). Some of these are already in operation in several schools and districts (Feinberg, 2000).

School counselors are usually the first major contact person that newly arrived immigrant students encounter. Hence, counselors are well positioned to inform students of available services that can assist them in transitioning into American public high schools. Counselors are also well positioned to foster the belief that it is important to do well in school as a prerequisite for academic success (Feinberg, 2000). Within the local school, counselors can also help immigrant students better cope with their academic, developmental, social, and other needs and issues such as English language acquisition, post-traumatic stress syndrome, and racial labeling.

While school counselors are also in a good position to ensure individualized attention for and service to newly arrived immigrant students in all these different areas, it has been well established that group work is quite effective and successful in school settings. Thus, school counselors would do well to consider group work with newly arrived immigrant students. On a group level, school counselors can lead the way in academic circles by offering and conducting transition and support groups such as the bicultural group offered at the Los Angeles high school (Cardenas & Taylor, 1993). A useful transition group, for instance, could focus on study skills and test-taking skills as a way of addressing the different learning styles of newly arrived immigrant students. Transition and support groups would be offered with the goal of assisting newly arrived immigrant students in becoming more adept at survival in their new scholastic environments. Peer counselors could be used in transition and support groups. Peer counselors would work collaboratively with school counselors to assist in the facilitation of the overall adjustment of newly arrived immigrant students as well as their involvement and participation in transition and support groups.

The approaches that can be taken to assist newly arrived immigrant students require creativity and innovation on the part of individual school counselors. The important thing is to account for the needs of the targeted population of such students in one's local school or district. Of course, this can be achieved by way of a needs assessment followed by adjusting one's guidance and counseling curriculum or model according to the needs identified.

CONCLUSION

This article about the needs of newly arrived immigrant students brings several things to light. Firstly, many existing programs are still in their infancy but are very promising in terms of their effectiveness. This is especially true of the work of school counselors considering the fact that their roles in current programs have been limited. Opportunity for greater input and service definitely exists.

Secondly, existing programs must constantly evolve to meet and accommodate students' needs. The ethnic and cultural composition of the immigrant student population has continually changed and continues to do so. Depending on the region of the United States, even the specific countries of origin as well as the numbers can change over time. For example, in Miami-Dade County, Florida, newly arrived immigrant students typically came from Cuba. Nowadays, there are increasing numbers coming from a variety of Central and South American countries. Hence, as the composition and numbers of newly arrived immigrant students change, so must programs that serve these students. If not, these programs run the risk of becoming obsolete and ineffective for the populations that they serve.

It may well be that many of the aforementioned suggested implications for school counselors infer a major paradigm shift in the way that school guidance and counseling is practiced. School counselors would need to be encouraged to continue to go the extra mile for their students--in this case, those who are newly arrived in this country. No matter what interventions are implemented or what programs are proposed, however, counselors must remember that foremost of all are the needs of their students. As discussed above, newly arrived immigrant students have special needs. These needs deserve attention just as do the needs of any other students. Once school counselors recognize and attend to these needs, newly arrived immigrant students will be better helped within American public schools.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).Washington, DC: Author.

Cardenas, J., & Taylor, L. (1993).Transition support for immigrant students. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 21(4), 203-210.

Center of Applied Linguistics. (2000). Newcomers: Language and academics programs for recent immigrants. Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence.

Feinberg, R. C. (2000). Newcomer schools: Salvation or segregated oblivion for immigrant students. Theory Into Practice, 39, 220-227.

First, J. M. (1988). Immigrant students in U.S. public schools: Challenges with solutions. Phi Delta Kappan, 70, 205-210.

Immigrant teens: Overlooked and underserved. (2001, March/April) Leadership, 30(4), p. 6.

James, D. C. S. (1997). Psychosocial risks of immigrant students. The Education Digest, 63, 51-53.

Jay, J. (2000). Issues in counseling immigrant college students. Community College of Journal of Research and Practice, 24, 577-586.

Kellogg, J. B. (1988). Forces of change. Phi Delta Kappan, 70, 199-204.

McDonnell, L. M., & Hill, P.T. (1993). Immigrant education:The incredible shrinking priority. Education Digest, 59, 35-39.

Olsen, L., & Jaramillo, A. (2000).When time is on our side: Redesigning schools to meet the needs of immigrant students. In P. Gandara (Ed.), The dimensions of time and the challenge of school reform (pp. 225-250). Albany, NY: State University of New York.

Perkins, L. M. (2000).The new immigrants and education: Challenges and issues. Educational Horizons, 78(2), 67-71.

Perry, M. J., & Mackun, P. J. (2000). Population change and distribution. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.

Rong, X. L., & Preissle, J. (1998). Educating immigrant students: What we need to know to meet the challenges. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

Ruiz de Velasco, J., & Fix, M. (2000). Overlooked and underserved: Immigrant children in U. S. secondary schools. Washington, DC: Urban institute.

Short, D. J. (2000). Secondary newcomer programs: Helping recent immigrants prepare for school success. Washington, DC:Center for Applied Linguistics.

Franklyn C.Williams is a doctoral candidate in the Counselor Education program, Department of Child, Family, and Community Sciences. E-mail: [e-mail].

S. Kent Butler, Ph.D., is an assistant professor, Division of Counseling and Family Therapy. Both are with the University of Central Florida, Orlando.