Comparison of cross-cultural course changes: from traditional lecture course to contemporary course with biblio-learning, video-learning, and experiential exercises.

Criticisms of traditional cross-cultural courses were enumerated in the literature. including superficiality and lack of personal learning experiences. Consequently, a traditional cross-cultural class with lecture and texts was compared with a contemporary cross-cultural class incorporating innovations. The traditional class students read several text-type books with cross-cultural theory and description of minority groups in a lecture format. The contemporary class read one textbook and several fiction novels exemplifying minority groups. These books were supplemented with student presentations of videos to exemplify theoretical constructs and experiential exercises. Analyses were performed to assess differences in learning outcomes and course evaluations from course structure. It was determined that though there was not a significant difference for exam one, the contemporary class had higher grades on exam two, and the traditional class had higher grades on exam three. Analysis of course evaluations, found traditional class evaluations to be higher. It was clear that students in the contemporary class were happier reading relevant novels than texts as the traditional class students complained excessively and never expressed interest in the course content. Contemporary students were eager to discuss the readings. Concern is discussed about the extra burden of the video presentations and the comparability of the classes.

As the population is becoming more and more diverse, the need for cross-cultural education is becoming more apparent. There has been a recent move in many fields toward research in this area. This move has been especially apparent in psychology and education. Although the nation's student and client populations are becoming more diverse, educators and therapists remain largely European American and middle class. This has brought about concerns as to whether individuals who are of a different culture or class are receiving equivalent services in these areas.

The field of psychology has not been without its biases and prejudices. Even after becoming aware of these problems, minorities have still been treated unfairly and often misdiagnosed or encouraged to conform to the mainstream society due to racial or cultural differences (Pederson, 2001; Robinson & Morris, 2000).

Professionals are now working toward understanding and changing such a perspective and promoting the appropriate education necessary for working with a diverse clientele (Constantine, 2001: Constantine & Yeh, 2001). Guidelines for training and practice are now being developed to ensure that minority or culturally divergent clients receive effective treatment. School curricula and applied training programs are also beginning to incorporate cross-cultural training into their curricula, but to varying degrees and with varying methods (Loudon. Anderson, Gill, & Greenfield, 1999: Rogers, Hoffman, & Wade. 1998: Webster. 2001).

A review by Kiselica, Maben, and Locke (1999) determined that, despite its flaws, cross-cultural training is effective in lowering prejudice and heightening European American racial identity development. It appears that we are moving in a positive direction toward provision of appropriate training, but there is still much to be understood in order to produce cross-culturally competent therapists (Kiselica et al., 1999; Robinson & Morris, 2000: Rogers et al., 1998; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000).

There is still much dispute over what the most effective methods of training are (Arthur & Stewart, 2001; Robinson & Morris, 2000; Rogers et al., 1998; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000). Though more has been written about graduate programming in cross-cultural training, some suggestions have been offered relevant to training at the undergraduate level. It is clearly necessary to provide some pedagogical techniques in a non-traditional manner. This might include discussion, experiences outside of the classroom or assessment formats other than standardized exams (Harris, 2001; Kranz & Lund, 1998; Lund, Kranz, & Porter, 1998). Rogers et al. (1998) examined graduate programs that were noted for their cross-cultural training. These programs tended to have a supportive and welcoming attitude toward minority students and faculty. They used an integrative strategy by incorporating cross-cultural issues into course work and practica, as well as specific courses dedicated to this subject. In another study of the effectiveness of a cross-cultural training course, Tomlinson-Clarke (2000) found that although students perceived the training as beneficial, they felt that more training was required, especially in the areas of cultural self-awareness and self-knowledge.

It has been suggested that teaching with a developmental approach might help to account for such concerns. Likewise, cross-cultural training must be integrated in an overall manner in graduate programs rather than relegated simply to one course (Constantine, Ladany, Inman, & Ponterotto, 1996; D'Andrea, Daniels, & Heck, 1991; Quintana & Bernal 1995; Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000).

Abreu (2001) suggested a cross-cultural training method that teaches about the nature of biases and prejudices, employing social and cognitive psychology. Several activities have also been suggested for experientially increasing awareness and allowing for discussion afterward.

It is generally agreed that cross-cultural competence includes awareness, knowledge, and skill. It will be necessary to first specify what strategies comprise these competenices and then to determine how we might employ these strategies (Daya, 2001: Hansen, Pepitone-Arreola-Rockwell, & Greene, 2000). Daya (2001) further stressed that although awareness, knowledge, and skill are necessary for cross-cultural competency, they are not enough. One must be able to utilize them effectively in therapy.

Daya also suggested that the best approach in cross-cultural therapy may he one that views the process of change to be universal. With this perspective, the psychological processes in therapy would be the same for all people, but the therapist must use his or her cross-cultural knowledge and skill to determine which changes to implement and how to do so. Many others, however, believe in a culture-centered perspective, which takes into account the many variables of a culture that might affect behavior (Arthur & Stewart, 2001: Pederson, 2001). According to Negy (1999), therapists should he aware of how one's culture may affect the patient's identified problem in therapy and should not make assumptions of cultural homogeneity, forgetting about the individual.

One must also be aware that everyone maintains some prejudices or biases and therapy may be affected by either the patient's or the therapist's biases. Lijtmaer (2000) noted how easily behaviors maybe misinterpreted when culture is not taken into consideration. She also warned that therapists should be aware of different types of transference and counter transference related to cultural differences. Singelis (2000) stressed the importance of how different cultures view the self. He suggested that future researchers as well as therapists must consider both the individual and group differences. Others caution that awareness of institutional barriers must be developed for they may impede minorities from receiving services (Arthur & Stewart, 2001; Negy, 1999). There exist many complex aspects of culture that may influence people as part of a group as well as the individual person.

It is recommended that further research be performed to evaluate the efficacy of specific methods of training (Arthur & Stewart, 2001: Kiselica et al, 1999: Robinson & Morris, 2000: Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000). One research approach that might assist in improving training is to assess the competency of the therapist in practice and the consequent effects upon the client (Pope-Davis, Liu, Toporek, & Brittan-Powell, 2001: Rogers et al., 1998: Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000). It was noted that outcome research would be most helpful if it were to evaluate qualitative as well as quantitative aspects of the training (Ponterotto, 1998: Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, & Alexander, 2001: Tomlinson-Clarke, 2000).

Cross-cultural education has become important in fields other than psychology. Kai, Spencer, and Woodward (2001) report that health educators have had little to no training in cross-cultural issues, which has caused them to be hesitant about teaching this subject, despite the benefit such as the finding that medical students reported increased awareness after a segment on cultural diversity (Dogra, 2001). It has become quite apparent that teachers themselves would benefit from cross-cultural education and training in how to introduce this component into their teachings.

Awareness is also necessary as many students are perceived as less intelligent by teachers, when the problem is actually due to cultural differences. Taylor and Sobel (2001) examined teachers' beliefs and how these beliefs affected their teaching practices. They found that the teachers wanted to be knowledgeable and teach all students effectively and equally, but most had minimal experience if any with persons from different cultures. They therefore recommend the need for teachers to have training and experience in this area. Cartledge and Loe (2001) and Vacarr (2001) noted that teachers' beliefs are very important in judging students' behaviors. Actions may be misunderstood if culture is not considered, which can lead to negative consequences. Teachers' expectations may also lead to unfair treatment of culturally different students.

It is necessary that teachers work toward providing social skill instruction and an environment in which students are given the opportunity to achieve successfully within the mainstream culture as well as their own culture. The student population is becoming so diverse, that there is a need for children to learn how culture affects them, how others differ, and how they fit into society. Frank et al. (2001) evaluated a new after school program that used direct cultural intervention to encourage students to examine who they were in relation to society and culture by using media. Results indicate positive changes such as greater self-esteem. It is becoming more evident that cross-cultural awareness is necessary in a variety of settings and disciplines, particularly with children.

Consistent with such recommendations, creative strategies have been employed in both the therapy and learning environments. One such technique is bibliotherapy which is a term first coined by Samuel Crothers many years ago (Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998). So it has been practiced for a very long time, but more often by treaters who have worked for more than 10 years (Adams & Pitre, 2000). Some have utilized it as a means of developing a therapeutic relationship, as material supplementary to the therapy, as a technique to develop independence and responsibility in patients, to draw out or reflect upon inner feelings and perceptions, for generation of social action, to increase motivation, engagement, and achievement (Adams & Pitre, 2000; Ford, Tyson, Howard, & Harris, 2000; Katz & Watt, 1992; Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998). It may likewise be utilized to work on or reflect upon emotional problems or issues by example, to learn problem solution techniques, for personal development, for self or other understanding and empathy development, to see another's perceptions or worldview, to promote respect and acceptance, to ponder universal problems, for realizing one's behavioral patterns, to learn new skills, to think critically, to learn to make decisions, or to detect bias (Adams & Pitre, 2000; Bernstein, 1989; Ford, Tyson, Howard, & Harris, 2000; Jackson, 2001; Katz & Watt, 1992; Kramer, 1999: Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998; Quackenbush, 1991; Smith & Burkhalter, 1987; Starker, 1988).

Many have sanctioned bibliotherapy (Atwater & Smith, 1982; Ellis, 1993; Santrock, Minnett, & Campbell, 1994; Smith & Burkhalter, 1987; Starker, 1988) as an effective tool in the therapeutic process whether as an adjunct to therapy or as self-help. Despite the positive view of biblio-therapeutic practice, limited methodologically sound research has been conducted to assess its effects (Cuijpers, 1997; Gould, Clum, & Shapiro, 1993; Jamison & Scogin, 1995; Scogin, Jamison, & Gochneaur, 1989; Starker, 1988).

Several have offered guidelines for use of prescribed bibliotherapy (Rosen, 1981). For example, it has been suggested that four stages of bibliotherapy exist: identification (commonalities found with character), catharsis (emotional reaction), insight (application of story situation to one's own), and universalization (relief of isolation and feelings of difference) (Halsted, 1994). It is cautioned that one must provide follow-up activity in order to promote understanding. Some suggested activities have included creative writing, art work, puppetry, role playing, story retelling with new endings, or discussion in order to make meaning of the reading (Jackson, 2001; Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998).

Jackson (2001) noted the necessity of careful selection of reading materials. It must be relevant to the individual as well as meaningful. Many have shared their bibliographies of reading materials. These have included suggestions for specific topics such as gifted children, family issues, and self-image by such people as Frasier (1982), Frasier and McCannon (1981), Guy (1993), Halsted (1994), Hebert (1991), Jeon (1992), Kramer (1999), Pardeck and Markward (1995), Reis and Dobyns (1991), and Smith (1989).

Biblioeducation is a slightly more recent concept of Rubin's (as cited in Pardeck & Pardeck, 1998). Biblioeducation is the use of books to assist students in personal growth and transforming experiences into meaningful perspectives (Dewey, 1938; Hynes and Wedl, 1990; Vygotsky, 1978). This is consistent with purported goals for cross-cultural education which in turn may positively affect the community (Cifuentes & Murphy, 2000). At the societal level, prejudice results from lack of understanding others' experiences and lack of respect (Meier, 1995: Moffett, 1994). Therefore, a course in cross-cultural psychology should provide opportunity for experiences in awareness, knowledge, and skill. Such a course must also provide opportunities for personal growth, understanding of others with different experiences and beliefs, experiential training, and modeling of respect for others' differences.

The current study sought to assess changes made in an undergraduate cross-cultural psychology course. Specifically, the old course provided mere information in the form of directed readings of texts and lectures with minimal class discussion. The modern course, however, minimized text reading and incorporated novels exemplary of divergent racial experiences. Students were expected to participate more actively, not only through class discussion, but also with selection and presentation of video clips to demonstrate conceptual elements. Experiential techniques were also employed.

Method

Participants

Archival data was utilized for the current study from those who were enrolled in one of two cross-cultural psychology classes. One hundred and one undergraduate students from a small southern United States predominantly White university (PWI) were in the classes. All participants were at least 18 years of age. Though a predominance of the students were between the ages of 19 and 21, some of the students were older as the university serves a large number of nontraditional students. Being retrieved from archival data, age could not be determined for the current samples. Race and sex were, however, possible to determine. Of the sample, 114 (73%) were women and 42 (27%) were men. Though 111 (71%) were European Americans, 42 (27%) were African Americans and 3 (2%) were undeterminable. The traditional class included 56 students and the modern had 48. All participants were treated in accordance with the "Ethical Principles of Psychologist Code of Conduct" (American Psychological Association, 1992).

Materials

Because the classes were held several years apart, the measurable requirements differed somewhat. Those quantitative measurements available for purposes of comparisons were the exam scores and course evaluations administered by the university. Some demographics were available for both classes as were the student cumulative grade point averages. Additionally, the attitude and tone of each class was assessed qualitatively.

Procedure

Archival data was compared between the two classes. Course content was changed from the traditional to modern class in an effort to promote understanding of others with different experiences and beliefs, incorporating awareness, knowledge, and skill. Being a few years apart, though students from both classes were required to take 3 exams and provide course evaluation, the other class requirements differed somewhat between them and were therefore not comparable. Both classes, however, were required to purchase several books on which they were tested. For the traditional (earlier) class, the books consisted entirely of textbooks. For the modern (latter) class, the books consisted of one text and several relevant novels. Such novels included in the class were relevant and non-stereotyping as they were written predominantly by minority authors as was suggested by Tomlinson-Clarke (2000).

For the modern class, awareness was represented in the experiential exercises including overnight stays at each other's homes, participation in restaurant personnel experiment, and role-plays on opposing views with students taking the side other than their own. Knowledge was provided through lectures, the textbooks, novels, and video clips. The skill competency was incorporated with the students selecting and presenting video clips and relating them to textbook and lecture constructs. Also assessed qualitatively were student enthusiasm regarding readings and class discussion participation and presentations.

Results

Race was found to be a confounding variable (F(2,145) = 5,89, p = .003) as was overall GPA (r(94) =.607, p = .0005) for the analyses of course examination grade. Therefore, an ANCOVA was performed with race and overall GPA as the covariates. It was found that there was an overall significant class difference, F(3,92) = 12.96, p =.0005. With the follow-up analyses, it was found that though there was not a significant difference for exam one, F(1,92) = .031, p = .164) ([[eta].sup.2] = 0.021), there were significant differences for exams two (F(1,92) = 18.12, p = .0005) ([[eta].sup.2] = 0.165) with the modern class having higher grades, and three (F(1,92) = 9.27, p = .003) ([[eta].sup.2] = 0.092) with the traditional class having higher grades.

The modern class requirements included brief presentations of video clips. The class average for the presentations was 86%.

Discussion

Findings

Many techniques have been suggested for improvement of cross-cultural training. Among them are use of non-traditional formats such as discussion, out of class experiences (Harris, 2001; Kranz & Lund, 1998; Lund, Kranz, & Porter, 1998), and bibliotherapy (Atwater & Smith, 1982: Ellis, 1993: Santrock, Minnett, & Campbell, 1994; Smith & Burkhalter, 1987; Starker, 1988). The current study was performed in order to evaluate such techniques.

Two undergraduate cross-cultural classes were compared. One was taught with a traditional lecture style. The other class was taught employing biblio- and video-learning strategies as well as experiential exercises. The traditional class students were expected to read several text-type books that espoused cross-cultural theory and described several minority groups. Students in that class frequently complained about being required to purchase all of the several books. The other class was required to read only one text book and several fiction novels, written by minority authors, that exemplified various cultural groups. No complaints were expressed about the number of these books which was equivalent. In fact, students began discussing what they read prior to assigned discussion dates in class. Moreover, the traditional course incorporated lecture with minimal discussion sessions. The modern course incorporated not only discussion of readings, but discussions regarding course exercises and required that students choose and present video clips with which to demonstrate theoretical constructs.

Quantitative. Race and overall GPA were found to be confounding variables and their effects were therefore statistically removed in analyses. An overall significant class difference was discovered between the two, but the better class varied depending upon the particular assessment compared.

There was not a significant difference between classes for exam one. This makes sense in that both classes were primarily responsible for learning basic cross-cultural theory for the first exam. Significant difference for exam two was found with the modern class having higher grades as anticipated. At this point in the modern class, students were eagerly reading the novels which they reported enjoying. They were also enjoying the process of selecting video clips and discussing such choices in class. Significant differences for exam three were also found, but with the traditional class having the higher grades. This was not expected, but might make sense in that at this point in the modern class students began to express that they were feeling overwhelmed by the workload for the course, which included the last exam and cultural video presentation preparation. There was also a high degree of anticipatory anxiety expressed at the time regarding the presentations. The traditional class, however, merely had the exam for which to prepare, rather than two tasks at once. They likely had less anxiety getting in the way of successful study at the end too. So the additional requirement might have interfered with the equivalency of the two classes.

The university administered evaluations of the courses were also administered at this point in time and were significantly different with the traditional class evaluations being higher than those of the modern class. This was probably the result of the same phenomenon as that described for the third exam. Further, these course evaluations--of which only the summary score was assessed--are quite simplistic with only a few items, and not very sophisticated in terms of psychometric properties.

Qualitative. Though students in both classes were required to purchase 4-5 books, the traditional class utilized 5 textbooks and the modern class: one text and 3 relevant novels. The traditional class members complained about having to purchase so many books despite their all being reasonably sized paperback books. Many did not, in fact, purchase all of the books. They also did not read the required chapters assigned for class discussion and the discussion therefore remained minimal. The modern class eagerly bought the books without complaint. Further, they continually wanted to discuss each book prior to the time for which it was scheduled. They verbalized their interest and enjoyment at reading the books.

The modern class members also expressed their enjoyment while viewing, choosing and discussing their choices of videos prior to their class presentations. This assignment was made a course requirement in order to motivate the students to personalize the material, which it appeared to do. Later in the class, however, it was apparent that the actual presentation was perceived as a burden by the students. This likely had something to do with their vocalized anticipatory anxiety and reticence to make presentations in front of the class, despite the fact that the class was a senior level seminar. Likewise, optional extra credit exercises were provided and discussed in class once performed by students. These included searching the Internet for interesting relevant sites (e.g. history of soul food), spending the night or weekend at the home of another student of a different race, an observation exercise in a restaurant, and an observation exercise in a retail store.

Limitations and Future Research

There are some shortcomings of such a study. Because the courses were not designed with the current assessment in mind, the courses were not entirely comparable. Therefore, the components of the course changes were difficult to evaluate. Additionally, the study was a retrospective rather than prospective study. Consequently, the modern course was not developed with specific cross-cultural theoretical underpinnings in mind. Fortunately, however, some suggestions in prior research were addressed (Atwater & Smith, 1982; Ellis, 1993: Harris, 2001; Kranz & Lund, 1998: Lund, Kranz, & Porter, 1998; Santrock, Minnett, & Campbell, 1994; Smith & Burkhalter, 1987; Starker, 1988). Rather, the changes were incorporated in order to make the course more interesting and thereby promote more active participation in the learning process. It therefore only emphasized general elements of pedagogical theory.

There was, also, no a priori evaluative component incorporated in the first, traditional course. An additional impediment to the understanding of the class differences was that the class evaluation--that was administered by the university for both classes-was limited. These evaluations posed only a few questions, with one regarding course difficulty that might he interpreted in the opposite direction from the others. Such an evaluation might better be assessed at the item level in the future. Even better, additional specific evaluations tailored to the specific course might be administered.

Lastly, the non-randomized samples were derived from a small rural university, thereby limiting generalizability. Future researchers would do well to make such comparisons across campuses in a variety of geographic locations. Such research is possible if different class formats are compared with specific measurable similarities and differences, utilizing better methods of control with matched samples drawn from such classes.

Implications

Despite the nature of the current study and its consequent generalizability shortcomings, what may be gleaned from such a study is confirmation of the importance of the active learning process. Students were much more satisfied during the modern class whereas they were not as motivated and excited to learn and personalize information by the traditional style. As cross-cultural attitudes and beliefs are often intimately related to one's emotions, such a course as the modern course that clearly moved the students confirmed the findings of Kranz and Lund (1998) and Lund. Kranz, and Porter (1998). Though some of the components described in these classes were not as quantifiable as examination scores, they are absolutely necessary as it has been demonstrated that individuals from diverse cultural and economic backgrounds differ in learning styles and are better able to demonstrate such knowledge through different means (Harris, 2001).

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Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Catherine E. Hansen, Department of Psychology, Northwestern State University, Natchitoches. LA 71497

Catherine E. Hansen, Ph.D. and Misty R. Williams, Northwestern State University