Comparison of academic achievement between Montessori and traditional education programs.Abstract. The purpose of this study was to compare the academic achievement of 543 urban 4th- (n=291) and 8th- (n=252) grade students who attended Montessori or traditional education programs. The majority of the sample consisted of minority students (approximately 53 percent), and was considered low income (approximately 67 percent). Students who attended a public Montessori school were compared with students who attended structured magnet, open magnet, and traditional non-magnet public schools on standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. measures of math and language arts language arts pl.n. The subjects, including reading, spelling, and composition, aimed at developing reading and writing skills, usually taught in elementary and secondary school. . Results of the study failed to support the hypothesis that enrollment in a Montessori school was associated with higher academic achievement. Implications and suggestions for future research are provided. ********** Maria Montessori Maria Montessori (August 31, 1870 – May 6, 1952) was an Italian physician, educator, philosopher, humanitarian and devout Catholic; she is best known for her philosophy and method of education of children from birth to adolescence. developed the first Montessori school in 1907 to serve children who were economically disadvantaged, as well as children with mental retardation mental retardation, below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. (Pickering, 1992). Her work included development of specific educational methods and materials based on her beliefs about how children learn. Although Montessori programs historically have ended at age 6, elementary Montessori programs became more prevalent in the 1990s, with middle and secondary programs slowly emerging (Seldin, 2002-03). The Montessori movement received a boost in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. when federal funding was released for magnet programs that allowed public funding Public funding is money given from tax revenue or other governmental sources to an individual, organization, or entity. See also
named after North America. North American blastomycosis see North American blastomycosis. North American cattle tick see boophilusannulatus. Montessori Teachers' Association, 2003). According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Ryniker and Shoho (2001), the Montessori approach is based on the tenet TENET. Which he holds. There are two ways of stating the tenure in an action of waste. The averment is either in the tenet and the tenuit; it has a reference to the time of the waste done, and not to the time of bringing the action. 2. that children learn most effectively when information is developmentally appropriate. Central to this approach is the notion that children's natural tendencies "unfold unfold - inline " in specially designed multiage environments that contain manipulative ma·nip·u·la·tive adj. Serving, tending, or having the power to manipulate. n. Any of various objects designed to be moved or arranged by hand as a means of developing motor skills or understanding abstractions, especially in self-correcting materials (North American Montessori Teachers' Association, 2003). Montessori reportedly identified genetically programmed "sensitive periods" in which children have exaggerated capacity and eagerness to acquire skills and information (Crain, 1992). Because each child's development is different, the individual child is allowed to choose activities, "trusting the child's sensitive periods will guide him to choose the work for which he is ready" (Pickering, 1992, p. 92). In this approach, children learn at their own pace through manipulation of objects. As such, personal independence, self-discipline, and initiative are essential for learning and motivation, with motivation purportedly pur·port·ed adj. Assumed to be such; supposed: the purported author of the story. pur·port fostered through interactions in the environment (Kendall, 1993). Harris and Callender (1995) contend that the emphasis on these aspects leads to "inner discipline." In the Montessori approach, teachers do not "direct learning," but respect the children's efforts toward independent mastery (Crain, 1992). Instruction is based largely on sensory materials developed by Montessori (Ryniker & Shoho, 2001). Montessori and traditional education programs reportedly differ in several ways, including physical environment, instructional methodology, and classroom attitude. For example, Montessori classrooms employ an open concept in which desks are arranged in "rafts" to promote individual and small-group learning and are composed of students across a three-year age range, whereas traditional classrooms have desks oriented o·ri·ent n. 1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia. 2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality. b. A pearl having exceptional luster. 3. in one direction for whole-group instruction and consist of same-grade students (Chattin-McNichols, 1992). In Montessori classrooms, students typically spend three to four hours per day in self-selected individual and small-group work and spend less than one hour per day in whole-group instruction (Baines & Snortum, 1973). This is in contrast to traditional classrooms where students follow teacher-directed work (Chattin-McNichols, 1992). In addition, traditional education programs have been identified as placing greater emphasis on dispensing dispensing provision of drugs or medicines as set out properly on a lawful prescription. A prescription can only be filled, the drugs supplied, by a registered pharmacist, veterinarian, dentist or member of the medical profession. and delivering information (Ryniker & Shoho, 2001). Instructionally, Montessori programs use manipulative materials designed by Montessori as an instructional methodology, whereas traditional classrooms use materials as teacher presentation aids. Furthermore, Montessori is distinct in that it does not use textbooks, worksheets, tests, grades, punishments, or rewards (Haines, 1995). Differences in classroom attitudes and management also have been noted. According to Chattin-McNichols (1992), Montessori classrooms are based on cooperation, while traditional classrooms are based on competition. In Montessori classrooms, "Teachers promote inner discipline in children by letting students direct their own learning instead of upholding an outer discipline where teachers act as authoritarians, dictating to students how to behave and what to do" (Harris & Callender, 1995, p. 134). Montessori teachers reportedly have "faith that the children will freely choose the tasks that meet their inner needs at the moment" (Crain, 1992, p. 65). In addition, Montessori programs target the development of "human potential ... beyond the more narrow focus of skill development and transmission of societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. values which shape the traditional educational system" (Kendall, 1993, p. 65). Additionally important is the assertion that the approach produces superior academic achievement outcomes (e.g., Daux, 1995; Dawson, 1987; Takacs, 1993 cited in Seldin 2002/03). Despite this contention, quantitative evidence to support the claim is limited. For example, Daux (1995) followed the performance of 36 "broadly middle-class" students from a private Montessori school from 2nd through 8th grade on annual standardized achievement testing. The students' initial 2nd-grade testing indicated that the group was above average when the study began. Gains exceeding the pretest pre·test n. 1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study. b. A test taken for practice. 2. were reported in the areas of total reading and total math against the national norm. Despite the lack of reported statistical analyses in the article, Daux (1995) claimed that the results provide "quantitative evidence that Montessori schools produce greater than expected academic achievement in students" (p. 147). Substantial methodological limitations, including the lack of a comparison group, absence of appropriate tests of significance, and numerous potential threats to internal validity Internal validity is a form of experimental validity [1]. An experiment is said to possess internal validity if it properly demonstrates a causal relation between two variables [2] [3]. , call into question these assertions and conclusions. Other examples of commonly cited studies that examined the efficacy of Montessori programs include studies by Glenn (1996) and Dawson (1987). Glenn (1996) conducted a 10-year longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. follow-up study of Montessori students on measures of academic achievement, as well as such personality characteristics as self-control, self-direction, spontaneity spon·ta·ne·i·ty n. pl. spon·ta·ne·i·ties 1. The quality or condition of being spontaneous. 2. Spontaneous behavior, impulse, or movement. Noun 1. , and creativity. Results indicated that students who attended Montessori programs were "as successful as the general public" and that years in a Montessori program were not related to personality characteristics. The study by Dawson (1987) examined mean grade equivalent scores on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills The Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) are a set of standardized tests given annually to school students in the United States. These tests are given to students beginning in kindergarten and progressing until Grade 8 to assess educational development. (ITBS ITBS Iowa Test of Basic Skills ITBS Iliotibial Band Syndrome ITBS Industrial Technologies Business Solutions ) and the Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT) for minority Montessori students in grades 1 through 5 against national norms. Results of the descriptive comparison indicated higher mean grade equivalents for minority students in the Montessori program as compared to national norms. Dawson also compared Montessori ITBS and MAT test scores against matched "conventional schools" (matched on ethnicity) in the district for grades 1 through 4. Results indicated that Montessori scores were significantly higher on nearly all grade level comparisons. Although Dawson was able to discount screening as a potential confound con·found tr.v. con·found·ed, con·found·ing, con·founds 1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle. 2. due to the program being non-selective (admission based on date of application), no data was provided on pre-programming levels to indicate whether the groups differed prior to enrollment in the Montessori program. In addition, no statistical control procedures were applied to control for potential demographic confounds such as gender and economic status. Lastly, Dawson noted that parental selection "could not be ruled out" as a rival explanation. Miller and Bizzell (1984) examined the long-term effect of Montessori preschool programs, as well as other preschool programs, on the 9th- and 10th-grade performance of low-income African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. students. No statistically significant differences on math and reading achievement scores (Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills) were found between students who attended Montessori versus other preschool programs. Although the researchers noted higher performance for male students who attended Montessori programs, the higher scores paralleled student IQ scores. Such a finding does not allow achievement differences to be attributed to instructional programming (i.e., Montessori preschool). Beyond these studies, proponents have made additional assertions regarding the effectiveness of Montessori programs. For example, Pickering (1992) contended that Montessori programs help students develop attention, organization/order, visual and auditory perception auditory perception Neurology The ability to identify, interpret, and attach meaning to sound , written language skills, fine and gross motor skills The term gross motor skills refers to the abilities usually acquired during infancy and early childhood as part of a child's motor development. By the time they reach two years of age, almost all children are able to stand up, walk and run, walk up stairs, etc. , mathematic skills, and personality. However, there is a lack of empirical support for Pickering's (1992) assertions regarding the areas positively affected, or the claim that Montessori materials have been "scientifically" validated. Some of the lack of evidence may be due to Montessorians' view that standardized tests A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] provide little information on student progress and do not assess the skills and attributes promoted in Montessori programs (Haines, 1995). As a result, it was not until recently that Montessorians encountered pressure to collect research data (Seldin, 2002/03). "Even though Montessorians may be averse a·verse adj. Having a feeling of opposition, distaste, or aversion; strongly disinclined: investors who are averse to taking risks. to the notion of evaluation, they will need to show results--quantifiable measures of student learning" (Haines, 1995, p. 118). Substantial methodological flaws in the existing literature suggest that more controlled empirical research Noun 1. empirical research - an empirical search for knowledge inquiry, research, enquiry - a search for knowledge; "their pottery deserves more research than it has received" is necessary. Studies such as those previously described highlight a range of problems, such as a lack of comparison groups, statistical controls, and empirical testing for group comparisons. In a review of the literature, Seldin (2002/03) claimed that much of the existing research has been inconclusive INCONCLUSIVE. What does not put an end to a thing. Inconclusive presumptions are those which may be overcome by opposing proof; for example, the law presumes that he who possesses personal property is the owner of it, but evidence is allowed to contradict this presumption, and show who is or contained severe methodological flaws, and is limited in terms of age range. Additionally, little research has been conducted with elementary and latency (1) The time between initiating a request in the computer and receiving the answer. Data latency may refer to the time between a query and the results arriving at the screen or the time between initiating a transaction that modifies one or more databases and its completion. age children (Glenn, 1996; Kendall, 1993). To overcome these weaknesses, the current study empirically tested whether students in a Montessori school outperformed non-Montessori students using standardized measures of math and language arts. Specifically, 4th- and 8th-grade students who attended a Montessori school were compared to matched samples of students in structured magnet, open magnet, and traditional non-magnet schools in a large urban district. Method Sample The sample for the current study consisted of 543 fourth- and eighth-grade students (i.e., 291 fourth-graders and 252 eighth-graders) in a large urban district in western New York
Western New York refers to the westernmost region of New York State. . Four public schools were selected for participation: Montessori, Open Magnet (OM), Structured Magnet (SM), and Traditional Non-Magnet (TNM TNM tumor-nodes-metastasis; see under staging. TNM tumor, nodes and metastases; a system of cancer staging (see TNM staging). ) schools. Schools were selected based on grossly similar school profiles provided by the New York State Education Department The New York State Education Department is the state education department in New York State. It is responsible for the supervision for all public schools in New York State and all standardized testing, as well as the production and administration of state tests and Regents . To control for demographic differences between school types, schools were matched on gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. (SES). SES was determined using the federal formula for free and reduced lunch. Based on the formula, students were categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat by the district as "low income" or "not low income." Overall, approximately 67 percent of the total sample was identified as low income (i.e., 69 percent of grade 4 and 64 percent of grade 8). White students constituted approximately 47 percent of the sample, with African American, Hispanic, and Other students making up the category of "Minority." Demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. Schools selected for comparison with Montessori were chosen based on salient differences in instructional environment. A brief description of each school's orientation is provided. The Montessori school provided curricular content through a prepared learning environment that meets the needs and interests of children in multiage classrooms using Montessori instructional materials. The role of the teacher was described as one of observer and facilitator in student learning. This child-centered approach emphasized the "total development of the child," and learning over work products. Behavioral reinforcement and/or consequences were not employed to manage student behaviors. The stated goal of the Montessori school was development of strong self-directed young adults who pursue a lifetime love of independent learning. Two separate non-selective magnet schools magnet school n. A public school offering a specialized curriculum, often with high academic standards, to a student body representing a cross section of the community. (i.e., no admissions requirements/ tests) were chosen for comparison to reduce the potential confound of parental selection and choice. The magnet programs required parental selection and enrollment procedures that paralleled those of the Montessori school. Specifically, parents had contacted the district's magnet office and identified three possible magnet schools of interest. Student placement was determined by lottery. The Structured Magnet (SM) school emphasized back-to-basics curricular content, driven by New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of State standards. Instruction was described as teacher-directed, with drill-and-practice used to develop skills and curricular proficiency pro·fi·cien·cy n. pl. pro·fi·cien·cies The state or quality of being proficient; competence. Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence . Instructional materials regularly included textbooks, workbooks, and worksheets, and students completed assigned work at their desks. There was also a strong school-wide emphasis on structured classrooms and discipline, including consequences for modifying inappropriate behavior. The school described as an Open Magnet (OM) had large community spaces and shared open areas characteristic of "open education" concepts. The open environment allowed for team-teaching, as well as small-group and individual instruction in multiage groups that reportedly fostered students' sense of interdependence in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" and responsibility. The instructional approach of the school was identified as exploratory and discovery-oriented, with units designed to be thematic the·mat·ic adj. 1. Of, relating to, or being a theme: a scene of thematic importance. 2. . Schedules and routines were described as flexible. Discipline relied on naturalistic nat·u·ral·is·tic adj. 1. Imitating or producing the effect or appearance of nature. 2. Of or in accordance with the doctrines of naturalism. social opportunities, and school meetings to identify conflict resolution approaches. The fourth school was identified as a Traditional Non-Magnet (TNM). Students enrolled in the TNM attended that school based on proximity to home, with no parental selection. The TNM emphasized basic curricular standards to improve test scores. Instruction was based on structured direct instruction, including an emphasis on drill-and-practice using textbooks and worksheets. Students performed seatwork seat·work n. Lessons assigned to be done by students at their desks in the classroom. at their desks and were expected to adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. a strict code of discipline. The structured school environment included the use of behavioral consequences for modifying inappropriate behavior. Instruments Academic achievement was assessed using 4th- and 8th-grade math and language arts scores from two separate standardized measures: the New York State Mathematics and English/Language Arts (ELA Noun 1. ELA - an extreme leftist terrorist group formed in Greece in 1971 to oppose the military junta that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974; a revolutionary group opposed to capitalism and imperialism and the United States Revolutionary People's Struggle ) exams, and the Math and Language Arts portions of the TerraNova (McGraw-Hill, 2002). Mathematics Achievement. The content of the New York State Mathematics Exam was designed to parallel the New York State Learning Standards Learning Standards is a term used to describe standards applied to education content, particularly in the US K-12 space. The Learning Standards themselves can can be found on the individual web sites for states [1] . Both the 4th- and 8th-grade exams assess the general mathematical areas of procedural knowledge Procedural knowledge is the knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. See below for the specific meaning of this term in cognitive psychology and intellectual property law. , conceptual understanding, and problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. . Specific subtests include mathematical reasoning, number and numeration numeration, in mathematics, process of designating Numbers according to any particular system; the number designations are in turn called numerals. In any place value system of numeration, a base number must be specified, and groupings are then made by powers of the , operations, modeling/multiple representations, measurement, uncertainty (i.e., estimation), and patterns/functions (New York State Education Department, 2004a). The mathematics portion of the TerraNova (McGraw-Hill, 2002) also was used to assess mathematics achievement at the 4th- and 8th-grade levels. The two primary areas assessed were identified as mathematics (e.g., estimation, number and number sense, numeration, number theory, data interpretation, and measurement) and mathematics concepts (e.g., isolated computations and operations). Language Arts Achievement. The New York State English/Language Arts exam, conducted at the 4th- and 8th-grade levels, was designed to parallel the New York State Learning Standards and provides a comprehensive assessment of language arts achievement. The 4th-grade exam assessed the areas of reading, listening/writing, and reading/writing, and the 8th-grade exam assessed reading, reading/writing, listening/writing, and independent writing (New York State Education Department, 2004b). Examples of language arts skills assessed at the 4th-grade level included drawing inferences and conclusions, identifying main ideas and supporting details, locating information to solve a problem, and knowledge of story structure and elements. At the 8th-grade level, examples of skills included using text to understand vocabulary, drawing conclusions to make inferences, interpreting characters, settings, and themes, comparing and contrasting information, determining the meaning of literary devices, and recognizing points of view. The TerraNova (McGraw-Hill, 2002) also was used to assess language arts achievement. The skill areas assessed were identified as language (e.g., ability to understand the structure of words, how words are connected to form sentences, how sentences and paragraphs are connected to convey ideas, and language conventions) and language mechanics (e.g., editing and proofreading Proofreading traditionally means reading a proof copy of a text in order to detect and correct any errors. Modern proofreading often requires reading copy at earlier stages as well. ). Procedures Data for the present study were provided by the school district. Achievement test data were compiled as part of each school's annual evaluation of students. Data records were provided to the researchers anonymously, using only district-assigned numbers and no personally identifying information. Data were then analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. to evaluate the academic performance of Montessori students compared to students in magnet and non-magnet schools. Results At each grade level, a multivariate analysis multivariate analysis, n a statistical approach used to evaluate multiple variables. multivariate analysis, n a set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (MANCOVA MANCOVA Multivariate Analysis of Covariance ) tested the hypothesis that students in the Montessori school had higher language arts and mathematics achievement than students in magnet and traditional non-magnet schools. Planned contrasts were performed between the four school types at each grade level. Montessori was compared to Structured Magnet (SM), Open Magnet (OM), and Traditional Non-Magnet (TNM) schools on language arts and mathematics achievement. To control for demographic differences between students, demographic characteristics (gender, ethnicity, and SES) were used as covariates in all analyses. Covariate Results Correlations among the measures are presented in Table 2. The relationship between language arts and mathematics was fairly strong for both grade 4 (r=.65) and grade 8 (r=.64). Gender was not significantly related to mathematics achievement at either grade level, but was related to language arts achievement. Female students had higher language arts scores than male students in both grades 4 and 8. Ethnicity and SES were significantly related to both outcome measures. Minority and low-income students had significantly lower mathematics and language arts achievement than white students and those not identified as low-income, respectively. These relationships were consistent for both grade levels. The multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. tests of significance showed that the set of three covariates was significantly related to the achievement measures at grade 4 (F (6, 546)=19.0, p<.001) and grade 8 (F (6,476)=13.9, p<.001). Grade 4 Results Results of the overall tests of significance for grades 4 and 8 are summarized in Table 3. A significant multivariate main effect of school type was found at grade 4 (F (6,546)=7.35, p<.001). Univariate tests of significance showed differences among the four school types for both language arts (F (3,274)=2.53, p<.05) and mathematics outcomes (F (3,274)=14.55, p<.001). Planned contrasts between school types tested the specific hypothesis that students attending the Montessori school would outperform Outperform An analyst recommendation meaning a stock is expected to do slightly better than the market return. Notes: Exact definitions vary by brokerage, but in general this rating is better than neutral and worse than buy or strong buy. students in magnet and traditional non-magnet schools. Results showed no significant differences between students in the Montessori school and any of the other three types of schools on language arts achievement. No significant difference on mathematics achievement was found between the Montessori and SM schools, but Montessori was higher in math achievement than OM by .60 standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. . In contrast, Montessori students had significantly lower math achievement than TNM students; the effect size was .37 standard deviations. Grade 8 Results A significant multivariate effect of school type was also found at grade 8 (F (6,476)=4.54, p<.001). Univariate tests of significance showed that school types differed on language arts achievement (F (3,239)=5.24, p<.01), but not on mathematics (F (3,239)=1.33, p<.27). Results from the planned contrasts showed significant differences between the Montessori and other school types in language arts, but not in mathematics. Montessori students had significantly lower language arts achievement than students attending both the SM and TNM schools. The language arts differences were substantial; SM and TNM students scored higher than Montessori by .77 and .59 standard deviations, respectively. The OM students also had higher language arts achievement than Montessori, although this difference did not reach statistical significance (p<.06). Discussion Conflicting evidence and assertions, limited empirical research, and methodological weaknesses in the existing research illustrated the need for further study involving the effectiveness of Montessori schools. The current study tested the hypothesis that students attending a Montessori school would demonstrate higher math and language arts achievement compared to magnet and traditional non-magnet school students. Overall, the results were mixed and failed to support the general hypothesis that Montessori students demonstrate superior academic performance. Of the 12 specific contrasts that were tested, students from the Montessori school had significantly higher achievement on 1 contrast, significantly lower achievement on 4 of 12 contrasts, and showed no difference from other schools on 7 of the 12 specific contrasts. In the area of language arts, 4th-grade Montessori students did not significantly differ from students in the structured magnet, open magnet, or traditional non-magnet schools. At the 8th-grade level, however, Montessori students had lower achievement than students in structured magnet, open magnet, and traditional non-magnet schools. For math achievement, 4th-grade Montessori students demonstrated significantly higher scores than students in the open magnet, no difference from students in the structured magnet, and significantly lower scores than students in the traditional non-magnet schools. In grade 8, however, no significant differences in mathematics achievement were found between the Montessori and magnet or traditional schools. While the present study did not identify a consistent pattern of performance across grade levels, the lack of significantly higher scores for students in the Montessori school suggests that assertions regarding the academic achievement efficacy of Montessori programs should be viewed with caution. Current results contradict con·tra·dict v. con·tra·dict·ed, con·tra·dict·ing, con·tra·dicts v.tr. 1. To assert or express the opposite of (a statement). 2. To deny the statement of. See Synonyms at deny. those of other studies that found Montessori students demonstrated superior academic growth and achievement (e.g., Daux, 1995; Dawson, 1987). Minimally, results of the current study suggested that Montessori students were similar in the majority of achievement comparisons to students from magnet and traditional non-magnet schools. A more critical finding, however, was that 8th-grade students from the Montessori school demonstrated substantially lower language arts achievement than students from the other three programs. Several limitations in the current study warrant mention. Data for the current study were gathered on one school from each program type. As such, school differences might reflect idiosyncratic id·i·o·syn·cra·sy n. pl. id·i·o·syn·cra·sies 1. A structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual or group. 2. A physiological or temperamental peculiarity. 3. building level differences, rather than the effect of a particular program orientation. In addition, students in the study had been in existing programs and so program implementation and fidelity were not experimentally controlled. Although random assignment was not possible, matching procedures at the building level, as well as statistical controls (i.e., covariance), were used to minimize potential student differences between schools that might have accounted for performance variability. In addition, no subject data was available on duration of enrollment in a specific program. Although Glenn (1996) found that number of years in a Montessori program was not associated with the demonstration of "Montessori qualities," the potential impact of duration in any of the programs may be related to the efficacy of the program. While proponents of Montessori programs maintain both social and academic advantages for students, prior research has not adequately tested these assertions. This investigation empirically tested whether a Montessori school had academic benefits over other school programs. Despite mixed results, the hypothesis that Montessori programs are associated with superior academic achievement was not supported. This was especially evident in the lower language arts achievement among 8th-grade Montessori students. Although the Montessori approach is unique and may have benefits for both teachers and students that extend beyond academics, the potential advantages should be demonstrated empirically before assumed as a positive outcome. References Baines, M., & Snortum, J. (1973). A time-sampling analysis of Montessori versus traditional classroom interaction. Journal of Educational Research, 66, 313-316. Chattin-McNichols, J. (1992). Montessori programs in public schools. ERIC Digest, EDO-PS-7. Crain, W. (1992). Theories of development: Concepts and applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River Saddle River may refer to:
In 1913, law professor Dr. . Daux, T. (1995). Report on academic achievement in a private Montessori school. The NAMTA NAMTA North American Montessori Teachers' Association NAMTA National Art Materials Trade Association Journal, 20(2), 145-147. Dawson, M. (1987). Minority student performance: Is the Montessori magnet school effective? (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. ED309881) Glenn, C. M. (1996). The longitudinal assessment study: Cycle 4 (ten year) follow-up. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, No. ED 403013) Haines, A. M. (1995). Montessori and assessment: Some issues of assessment and curriculum reform. The NAMTA Journal, 20(2), 116-130. Harris, I., & Callender, A. (1995). Comparative study of peace education approaches and their effectiveness. The NAMTA Journal, 20(2), 133-144. Kendall, S.D. (1993). The development of autonomy in children: An examination of the Montessori educational model. The NAMTA Journal, 18, 64-83. McGraw-Hill. (2002). TerraNova, 2nd ed.: Technical Bulletin 1. Monterey, CA: Author. Miller, L. B., & Bizzell, R. P. (1984). Long-term effects of four preschool programs: Ninth- and tenth-grade results. Child Development, 55, 1570-1587. New York State Education Department (2004a). State assessment: Elementary and intermediate mathematics. Retrieved April 15, 2004, from http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/osa/elintmath.html New York State Education Department (2004b). State assessment: Elementary and intermediate English language English language, member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. arts. Retrieved April 15, 2004, from www.emsc.nysed.gov/osa/elintela.html North American Montessori Teachers' Association. (2003). Introduction to Montessori education. Retrieved July 28, 2004, from www.montessori-namta.org/NAMTA/geninfo/ whatismont.html. Picketing picketing, act of patrolling a place of work affected by a strike in order to discourage its patronage, to make public the workers' grievances, and in some cases to prevent strikebreakers from taking the strikers' jobs. Picketing may be by individuals or by groups. , J. S. (1992). Successful applications of Montessori methods Montessori method n. A method of educating young children that stresses development of a child's own initiative and natural abilities, especially through practical play. [After Maria Montessori.] with children at risk for learning disabilities. Annals an·nals pl.n. 1. A chronological record of the events of successive years. 2. A descriptive account or record; a history: "the short and simple annals of the poor" of Dyslexia dyslexia (dĭslĕk`sēə), in psychology, a developmental disability in reading or spelling, generally becoming evident in early schooling. To a dyslexic, letters and words may appear reversed, e.g. , 42, 90-109. Ryniker, D. H., & Shoho, A. R. (2001). Student perceptions of their elementary classrooms: Montessori vs. traditional environments. Montessori Life, Winter, 45-48. Seldin, T. (2002/03). What research says about Montessori's effectiveness. Tomorrow's Child, Winter, 5-11. Christopher Lopata University at Buffalo, State University of New York (body) State University of New York - (SUNY) The public university system of New York State, USA, with campuses throughout the state. , Buffalo, NY Nancy V. Wallace Kristin V. Finn Canisius College Canisius College (pronounced IPA: /kəˈniːʃəs/) is a private Catholic college in the Hamlin Park district of north-central Buffalo, New York. It was founded in 1870 by the Jesuits. It is named for St. , Buffalo, NY
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Study Sample
(n = number of students)
Grade 4 MEP SM OM TNM Total
Gender
Male 30 33 53 50 166
Female 19 22 45 39 125
Race
White 21 23 41 50 135
Minority 28 32 57 39 156
Low Income
Yes 31 40 62 70 203
No 18 15 36 19 88
Grade 8
Gender
Male 15 26 34 46 121
Female 24 33 43 31 131
Race
White 16 21 30 51 118
Minority 23 38 47 26 134
Low Income
Yes 21 31 51 59 162
No 18 28 26 18 90
Table 2
Correlations Among Study Variables
Low
Variable Gender (a) Income (b) Language Math Race (c)
Gender (a) 1.00 0.11 0.14 * 0.001 -0.003
Low Income (b) 0.02 1.00 -.33 ** -.37 ** 0.31 **
Language 0.18 * -.32 ** 1.00 0.64 ** -.38 **
Math -.06 -.27 ** 0.65 ** 1.00 -.36 **
Race (c) 0.06 0.31 ** -.36 ** -.44 ** 1.00
Note. Correlations for grade 4 variables appear below the diagonal.
Correlations for Grade 8 variables appear above the diagonal.
(a) 1=male; 2=female. (b) 1=no; 2=yes. (c) 1=white; 2=minority.
* p < .05; ** p < .001
Table 3
Summary of Multivariate and Univariate Contrasts
Multivariate Univariate
Language Mathematics
Effect Effect Effect
Grade 4 F Size T Size T Size
SM-MEP 1.41 0.34 -.54 -0.11 -1.60 -0.32
OM-MEP 5.97 ** 0.62 -1.32 -0.24 -3.35 ** -0.60
TNM-MEP 2.10 0.38 .93 0.17 2.02 * 0.37
Grade 8
SM-MEP 10.47 ** 0.95 3.74 0.77 ** -0.13 -0.03
OM-MEP 6.87 ** 0.74 1.88 0.37 (+) -1.63 -0.32
TNM-MEP 8.59 ** 0.86 2.85 0.59 ** -0.94 -0.19
Note. All effects controlling for gender, race, and income.
(a) Multivariate effect sizes reported are Mahalanobis Distance
statistics.
(+) p < .06; * p < .05; ** p < .001
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