College students' alcohol-related problems: an autophotographic approach.

Abstract

This study related standard self-report measures to an innovative approach (the autophotographic essay) as a way to provide insight into patterns of alcohol consumption and associated problem behaviors. College students (N=135) completed self-report measures of alcohol consumption and created autophotographic essays of identity coded for alcohol content. Results indicated that "alcohol identity" related to a quantity-frequency alcohol measure, thereby replicating past findings, and also predicted alcohol-related problem behaviors rarely if ever depicted in self-photos (driving drunk, binge drinking, drinking for sake of getting drunk, and participating in drinking games). Findings suggest that alcohol identity predicts problematic alcohol use and support the photo essay as a promising methodology for exploring facets of behavior and personality.

**********

The problems of alcohol abuse among college students, and methods to assess these, continue to motivate scores of studies each year because the consequences of such behavior can be profound. Although the majority of heavy college drinkers are not alcoholic, serious immediate consequences may arise (Alterman, Hall, Purtil, Searles, Holahan & McLellan, 1990; Donovan, Jessor, & Jessor, 1983). These include hangover, shakes, memory loss/blackouts, engaging in behavior later regretted, poor academic performance, missing class or a job, difficulty with authorities, sickness, property damage, personal injury, driving under the influence, and others (Core Institute, 2000). Although rates vary across schools, alcohol use is a normative element of the college experience (Presley, Meilman, & Leichliter, 2002; Wechsler, Molnar, Davenport, & Baer, 1999). To illustrate, the average college student may spend nearly $900 each year on alcohol, compared to $450 on books (ENAIPI, 2002), and binge drinking seems to account for the majority of alcohol-related problems (Wechsler et al., 1999). These findings collectively suggest the presence of a robust relationship between heavy drinking and potential alcohol-related problems. Of course, for many college students, alcohol consumption is associated with relatively positive experiences and only temporary negative consequences. However, for a minority of students, heavy drinking escalates into a poignant long-term struggle with alcohol use, representing a point of origin for alcoholism in men (Alterman et al., 1990).

In much of the research, relatively homogenous self-report surveys are used to assess alcohol variables over a specified time interval. These quantity-frequency-variability alcohol scales commonly are used to explore the numerous and complex relationships between alcohol use and associated factors in samples of college students. Use of the quantity-frequency typology is in accord with recommendations of Clark and Hilton (1991) which deemed self-reports to be the best source of information about drinking and related problems. Among problematic behaviors assessed by self-report, binge drinking constitutes a substantial component of alcohol use in the college atmosphere. Researchers often define binge drinking as at least one episode of five or more drinks for men and four or more for women at a drinking occasion within a specified interval, such as a one or two week time period (Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport, & Castillo, 1995). Forty-five percent of sampled 21-year-old Americans reported binge drinking in the previous month, and 17% reported heavy drinking in the past week (NHSDA, 2001). Research has indicated that binge drinkers account for most of the alcohol consumed (68%), reporting a median of 14.5 drinks per week (Wechsler et al., 1999).

Although self-reported drinking measures are routinely used, innovative approaches may supplement self-report and have heuristic value for new interventions. Examining factors unique to drinking in college populations requires new perspectives, variables, and methodologies (Dowdall and Wechsler, 2002). The present study employs one such supplemental methodological approach, using photography to define one's self or identity.

Alcohol and Identity

With a few exceptions, the construct of identity has received little attention in the literatures on alcohol abuse and alcoholism. Seeing oneself as an alcoholic is a key element of AA (Hoffman, 2003; Thomassen, 2002) and several studies address topics of either ego-identity (Eastman & Norris, 1982; Frank, Jacobson, & Tuer, 1990; LeCouteur, Reid, & Byrd, 2001; White, Montgomery, Wampler, & Fischer, 2003) or ethnic- and racial-identity in relation to drinking (Caldwell, Sellers, Bernat, & Zimmerman, 2004; Gong, Takeuchi, Agbayani-Siewert, & Tacata, 2003). It is noteworthy that so little research has related identity to alcohol abuse because these domains constitute two of the three most common themes in adolescent psychology (Greeson, 1986), and because the use of substances can be a part of the identity exploration process (McCourt, 2003).

The present study, and the program of which it is a part, builds on Ziller's (1990) creative identity assessment method known as autophotography. Ziller proposed that photographic responses to the "identity" question ("Who are you?") reveal orientations of the self thereby showing the individual's "psychological niche." From the participant's perspective, autophotography provides an intriguing activity in self-reflection that starts with a very familiar tool. For the researcher, it is a novel method of data collection, and for the clinician, it can be a tool to facilitate therapeutic conversation, self-scrutiny, and empowerment. Relative to the questionnaires used in most research, the photographic essay provides a more implicit, almost projective-test medium to explore facets of behavior and personality. Ziller has applied this method to a range of problems, populations, and cultures using quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. These studies reveal insights about delinquents, impoverished Mexican children, senior citizens in Japan and the United States, the experience of divorce and of life confided to a wheelchair, and self-perceptions of college students in therapy.

Grounded in the work of Ziller (1990), the second author and colleagues have conducted a number of studies showing that photographic self-essays reveal not only intended identities ("what you see is what you get") but also unintended glimpses of a participant's life, implying "more than meets the eye." This research program has examined how the overall autophotographic essay reveals the person's individuality or self-defining creativity, and has shown that responses to the "identity" question reveal distinct individual differences (Dollinger and Dollinger, 2003; Dollinger, Preston, O'Brien, & DiLalla, 1995). However, individual photo codes can also be telling about particular identity-aspects like alcohol use, religiosity, achievement, and athletic involvement (Dollinger, 1996). Of particular relevance to the current study, a "self-as-drinker" or alcohol identity was operationalized by the number of photographs illustrating alcoholic beverages (beer cans, hard liquor, probable mixed drinks), brand insignias on hats or clothing, or advertisements for particular alcoholic products (Dollinger, 1996; Dollinger, Rhodes, & Corcoran, 1993). Three questions on alcohol-related behaviors comprised the validating questionnaire items (two quantity-frequency or Q-F questions and a third reflecting associating with others who have drinking-related problems). These studies found that alcohol images in photo essays have validity as a predictor of the quantity and frequency of college student alcohol consumption. Moreover, Dollinger (1996) found that alcohol identity was associated with poorer academic performance both in the past and at present [i.e., class rank upon graduation from high school and current Grade Point Average(GPA)]. The photo-scored identity also correlated with greater satisfaction with one's social life and in identifying more with social than academic or vocational reasons for college attendance. What research has not shown thus far is any relationship between the photographic "alcohol identity" measure and problematic aspects of alcohol use like binge-drinking, engaging in drinking games, driving while intoxicated or intentionally getting drunk.

The Present Study

In their introduction to a special journal issue on college student drinking, Boyd and Faden (2002) offered a number of recommendations including two of particular relevance: that researchers more carefully assess the validity of self-report measures and that researchers explore alternative methods of data collection. The autophotographic approach may serve these goals. That is, "alcohol identity" portrayed in photo essays can visually corroborate self reports of alcohol use in college. For example, photos of drinking with friends in a party atmosphere and a bathtub filled with beer on ice are more visually compelling documentations of drinking than a higher-than-average number bubbled-in on a scantron form. Photo essays may also shed light on the larger social context that may accentuate significant alcohol-related consequences.

The present study tested the predictive validity of alcohol identity in a sample of college students. Q-F items provided an appropriate measure for typical alcohol consumption rates. In a different part of the survey, four items assessed alcohol-related problem behaviors. The general purposes of conducting this study were (a) to replicate past findings that "alcohol identity" relates to alcohol use among college students (Dollinger, 1996) and, to improve on that research, assess whether age group/legality and gender moderated this relationship; (b) test whether alcohol identity also predicts problematic alcohol use such as driving intoxicated, binge drinking, drinking to induce intoxication, and drinking games.

METHOD

Participants and General Procedure

One-hundred thirty-five participants (45 males and 90 females) enrolled in an undergraduate psychology course voluntarily completed both the autophotographic essay and a questionnaire study as 2 of 6 options for extra credit. Females averaged 22.2 years of age (SD = 5.61, range = 18-50) and males averaged 22.3 years of age (SD = 5.22, range = 18-44). Of the 135 participants, 76 were legal drinkers (age [greater than or equal to] 21, coded 0) and 59 were underage drinkers (age [less than or equal to] 20, coded 1). Approximately 87% of the participants were single. Supplementary analyses on variables included for other purposes showed that the 135 participants were comparable to 74 additional students who did not complete the photo essay. The two groups had virtually identical scores on the alcohol questionnaire variables and were comparable in terms of demographic variables like religiosity and parents' education. No significant differences were found for personality variables (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness), nor were differences found on a 25-item vocabulary test. However, those who provided photo essays had higher grade point averages (GPA M = 3.18 vs. 2.95, t(206) = 2.63, p < .01). In addition, proportionally more women than men completed photo essays (73% vs. 52%,) [chi square] = 10.2, p < .01).

The questionnaire study occurred near the start of the semester as an in-class exercise in a group administration format. Due two months later, the autophotographic essay project was completed independently outside of class. These activities were introduced as having the joint purpose of being advance organizers to later lectures and providing data for a study. Photo essays were returned to the participants within four weeks.

Autophotography

Following Ziller (1990), participants were instructed to compile 20 photographs answering the question, "Who are you?" and to provide a written commentary. Although old photos could be included, at least 10 new photos were to be taken for this project. These instructions were elaborated as follows: "By way of example, you can choose to portray your typical everyday environments and your current lifestyle; you could portray how you are unique (like no other person) and how you are like some or all others; you could show the traits or personality characteristics that are self-defining; you could depict the personal projects or important life tasks you are working on at present; or you could use your imagination to convey the inner values that you hold dear, the things that are most important to you, or to tell your life story." Note that photos of alcohol were not prompted by the instructions.

The alcohol identity code incorporated three components. Specifically, we tallied photos of the consumption of alcohol (e.g., person holding a can of beer, mixed drinks on the table), the display of alcohol (e.g., a liquor cabinet showing different types of beer), and alcohol advertisements (e.g., posters or clothing showing brand preference). Photo essays were coded by a main coder and reliability was checked by a second coder examining a randomly selected 20% of the photo essays. The correlation between coders on total number of alcohol identity photos was r = .97 (a value similar to that obtained in related studies). Because photo counts vary by number of photos and participants included from 17 to 62 photos (M = 21.8), we prorated alcohol scores to a standard 20-photo set. For example, if a participant presented 25 photos with 5 showing alcohol, his/her alcohol identity score would be 4. Slightly over 71% of the sample included at least one photograph that registered on the alcohol identity coding scheme, with M = 2.12, SD = 2.36, range = 0-10.

Alcohol Questionnaire Measures

The questionnaire included several scales used for instructional or other research purposes plus items used for the present research. A Q-F measure assessed typical alcohol usage. A drink included a standard bottle, can, or glass of beer, a glass of wine, a mixed drink, or a shot (containing 1 oz of alcohol). To assess frequency of alcohol use, participants were asked to make the following ratings: "Thinking about your behavior in the last year or so of your life, how often do you consume alcoholic beverages?" (1 = never; 2 = less than twice per month; 3 = from 2-4 times per month; 4 = from 1-2 times per week; 5 = from 3-4 times per week; 6 = from 5-6 times per week; 7 = usually every day). Participants were asked to rate their quantity of alcohol consumed: "How much do you typically consume at a drinking occasion?" (1 = NA [do not drink alcohol]; 2 =,from 1 to 2 drinks per occasion; 3 = from 3-4 drinks per occasion; 4 = from 5-6 drinks per occasion; 5 = from 7 to 8 drinks per occasion; 6 = from 9 to 11 drinks per occasion; 7 = 12 or more drinks per occasion). When averaged, the Q-F items composed a variable with a coefficient alpha of .83, with M = 2.43, SD = 1.33, range = 0-5.5.

Additionally, four items assessed alcohol-related behaviors, using a No/Yes format. Embedded within the College Behavior Checklist (Dollinger, 2004), each question appraised a specific behavior, starting with the statement, "Since starting college, have you ... " Of the 18 questions in the set, 4 were alcohol-related. The relevant questions included: "ever driven while intoxicated but not been stopped by police" (endorsed by 62% of participants); "ever engaged in binge drinking," defined by 5 or more drinks at one occasion for males and 4 or more for females (76% endorsed); "ever got drunk for the sake of getting drunk" (77% endorsed); and "ever engaged in drinking games with friends" (79% endorsed). As indicated by the above percentages, the majority of the participants reported engaging in each behavior. When summed, these four questions constitute a problematic alcohol-behaviors variable with a coefficient alpha reliability of .81 (M = 2.94, SD = 1.75, range = 0-4). The score was somewhat skewed with about half endorsing all four problem items.

RESULTS

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for the alcohol identity measure (i.e., number of alcohol photos in the essay), alcohol Q-F consumption, and alcohol problem-behavior variables. Also shown are correlations of these measures with age group (coded 1 if underage, 0 if legal drinker), gender (1=male, 0=female) and GPA. Regarding gender differences, males obtained higher scores on alcohol identity, alcohol Q-F, and a single alcohol-related behavior (binge drinking). Younger participants included more alcohol photos and reported higher levels on the alcohol Q-F measure than older participants. GPA did not significantly correlate with any of the alcohol variables.

Regression analyses were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of three predictor variables: gender, age group, and alcohol identity (blocked into 7 levels, incrementally, from 0 to [greater than or equal to] 6 photos). (Because GPA correlated with completion of the photo essay, it was included in preliminary analyses as a fourth predictor but it did not account for significant variance nor change any results so was dropped from further consideration.) A hierarchical regression designated alcohol Q-F as the dependent variable; gender and age were entered in the first step, alcohol identity in the second (see Table 2). After step 1, R = .46, F = 17.21, 2/132 df, p < .001. Beta weights indicated greater consumption by men than women and underage than legal-drinking participants. After step 2, with all three predictor variables entered into the equation, R = .61, F = 26.48, 3/131 dfp < .001. The [R.sup.2] change in step 2 was significant, F = 35.92, 1/131 df, p < .001, with alcohol identity accounting for an additional 17% of the variance. Beta weights for gender, age, and alcohol identity were significant. Beyond the contributions of age and gender, alcohol identity uniquely contributed to the prediction of alcohol Q-F.

To determine whether gender and age moderated the relationship, after centering variables, we computed Gender X Photos and Age Group X Photos interaction terms for the regression. These terms yielded non-significant standardized beta weights of .01 and .04 when entered after the main effects. Another way to assess this moderation would be within-group correlations between photos and Q-F. This correlation was nearly identical for men and women (rs = .53 and .50 respectively) and for underage and legal drinkers (rs = .49 and .50 respectively). Thus we found no evidence that the relationship was moderated by gender or age.

The relationship between alcohol identity and each of the four alcohol behaviors is presented visually in Figure 1; it depicts the proportion of individuals endorsing each behavior as a function of the number of alcohol photographs. In general, individuals who depicted alcohol identity in their photos were more likely to endorse the four problem behaviors. This was particularly notable for drinking games which was endorsed by every participant who included six or more alcohol photos. To better appreciate the impact of alcohol identity on high-risk drinking, we combined the four behaviors into a new dichotomy where 1 = endorsement of all four behaviors and 0 = endorsement of fewer than four. (As noted, about half of the participants were high-risk drinkers.) In these logistic regressions, we contrasted those with zero alcohol photos and those with four or more such photos; and 0 vs. 1-3 alcohol photos. Gender and age group made no difference in these analyses. As shown in Table 3, participants with just 1-3 alcohol photos were 2.4 times more likely to be high-risk problem drinkers than those with zero photos; those with four or more alcohol photos were nearly 8 times more likely to be high-risk problem drinkers.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

DISCUSSION

The present results corroborated past findings related to alcohol use in college students while lending further support for using the photo essay to supplement self-report measures. Most of the sample (71%) included at least one photo scored on the alcohol identity code. The vast majority of participants reported both consuming multiple drinks per occasion several times per month and having engaged in alcohol-related problem behaviors during college. As expected, alcohol identity predicted alcohol Q-F and this finding was not moderated by age group or gender but held true for all participants. More importantly, alcohol identity also predicted alcohol-related problem behaviors. In considering the results, we must keep in mind two key limitations. First, the study is correlational, so we cannot conclude anything about direction of causality. Second, the sample was a convenience sample of students who chose to complete the photo essay as an extra credit project for a Psychology class. Although those doing the photo project had better academic records than nonparticipants, and women were more likely than men to choose the project, the participants were generally very representative of the class on alcohol, demographic, and personality variables.

As noted, several researchers have called for use of measures other than self-report to better triangulate on problems of college student alcohol use. The present findings serve to validate self-reported frequency and quantity of consumption in that different sources of error may influence self-reports and photo essays. When a student is asked (say) whether he/she has consumed 4 or 5 drinks at one occasion, that participant may have several momentary and perhaps not fully conscious reactions to the question which could bias the answer. That is, he/she may think "sure I can handle my alcohol--I'm mature," or "I don't want them to think badly of me" or "it's usually just 3 drinks anyway" or even "I'm not an alcoholic." In contrast, the implicit messages created by photo essayists are more commonly on the order of "I'm a person enjoying my life at college," "I'm a busy person filling many roles right now," "I'm a nonconformist," "I'm a child of God and my parents," or "I am unique and creative."

In most instances when alcohol is present in the photo essay, the corresponding words describe the social occasion rather than the alcohol itself. Underscoring this point is a recent finding by Burke and Dollinger (2005) analyzing the words used in photo essays with the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count computer program (LIWC; Pennebaker, Francis, & Booth, 2001). Among some 70 linguistic codes, only the "friends" word category correlated with alcohol photos, r = .36, p < .001. As a point of comparison, word use in the "family" category was unrelated to alcohol photos, r = -. 10. The sociality of alcohol photos was also evidenced in our earlier work (unpublished analyses from published studies) in which we recorded the social nature of photos with codes like photos of self-smiling and others smiling. "Other people smiling" was a consistently good predictor of alcohol photos (and better than self-smiling); across 8 samples, the median r was .29 with rs ranging from .16 to .54, p < .05 in 7 of the 8 samples. Thus, the context of most alcohol photos is that of socializing with friends.

The present results go beyond our earlier findings by implying that alcohol identity is not simply an indication of enjoying the social life of college. Alcohol identity also predicted engaging in behaviors that place the student at much greater risk for personal injury, harm to others, and legal consequences--binge drinking, drinking games, drinking intentionally to intoxication, and drunk driving. The consequences of such behavior contrast sharply with the emotions evident in alcohol photos. Obviously, as an assessment tool, the photo essay is much less convenient than self-report and it is not our intent to suggest that it be used routinely for such purposes. However, it adds to confidence in self-report data. Moreover, it may be ideally suited to augment brief motivational interventions that help heavy-drinking students appreciate the discrepancy between their present behavior and their future plans, goals and aspirations (Baer Kivlahan, Blume, McKnight, & Marlott, 2001). Students referred for treatment could be invited to devise photo essays prior to a brief intervention. Then the therapist could review the photo essay with the student before discussing the point that such photos in fact predict high-risk drinking. This could be most compelling for those who included four or more alcohol photos since their odds for being at high risk were 8 times greater than those with no such photos.

In sum, this study provides additional validation for the use of a photo essay as an innovative research tool. Alcohol identity related to the Q-F measure of alcohol use, in a sense showing that "what you see is what you get" with alcohol photos. However, these photos also predicted problematic alcohol use, measured by binge drinking, drinking games, driving intoxicated, and drinking to induce intoxication, suggesting that the photos in fact "reveal more than meets the eye." The open-ended, projective nature of the photo essay is a subtle means to explore the extent to which alcohol is a component of one's sense of identity and supplement questionnaire measures. Based on the current findings, we suggest that the autophotographic methodology might be a meaningful and empowering entry point for therapeutic dialogue regarding the link between alcohol identity and problematic behaviors.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Stephen J. Dollinger, Department of Psychology, 1125 Lincoln Drive, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901-6502, Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]; email: [e-mail].

REFERENCES

Alterman, A.I., Hall, J.G., Purtill, J.J., Searles, J.S., Holahan, J.M., & McLellan, A.T (1990). Heavy drinking and its correlates in young men. Addictive Behavior, 15, 95-103.

Baer, J.S., Kivlahan, D.R., Blume, A.W., McKnight, P., & Marlott, G.A (2001). Brief intervention for heavy-drinking college students: 4-year follow-up and natural history. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1310-1316.

Boyd, G.M., & Faden, V. (2002). Overview. Journal of Studies on Alcohol (supplement), 14, 6-13.

Burke, P.A., & Dollinger, S.J. (2005). A picture's worth a thousand words: Language use in the autophotgraphic essay. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 536-548.

Caldwell, C.H., Sellers, R.M., Bernat, D.H., & Zimmerman, M.A. (2004). Racial identity, parental support, and alcohol use in a sample of academically at-risk African-American high school students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 34, 71-82.

Clark, W.B., & Hilton, M.E. (1991). Alcohol in America." Drinking practices and problems. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Core Institute (2000). 2000 statistics on alcohol and other drug use on American campuses. Retrieved September 6, 2002, from http://www.siu.edu/departments/coreinst/

Dollinger, S.J. (1996). Autophotographic identities of young adults: With special reference to alcohol, athletics, achievement, religion, and work. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67, 384-398.

Dollinger, S.J. (2004). Predicting personality-behavior relations: A teaching activity. Teaching of Psychology, 31, 48-51.

Dollinger, S.J., & Dollinger, S.M. (2003). Individuality in young and middle adulthood: An autophotographic study. Journal of Adult Development, 10, 227-236.

Dollinger, S.J., Preston, L.A., O'Brien, S.P., & DiLalla, D.L. (1995). Individuality and relatedness of the self: An autophotographic study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 1268-1278.

Dollinger, S.J., Rhodes, K.A., & Corcoran, K.C. (1993). Photographically portrayed identities, alcohol expectancies, and excessive drinking. Journal of Personality Assessment, 60, 522-531.

Donovan, J., Jessor, R., & Jessor, L. (1983). Problem drinking in adolescence and young adulthood: A follow-up study. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 44, 109-137.

Dowdall, G.W., & Wechsler, H. (2002). Studying College Alcohol Use: Widening the Lens, Sharpening the Focus. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 14-22.

Eastman, C., & Norris, H. (1982). Alcohol dependence, relapse and self-identity. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 43, 1214-1231.

Emergency Nurses Association Injury Prevention Institute (ENAIPI; 2002, April). Factsheet: Alcohol awareness. Retrieved September 6, 2002, from http://www.ena.org/encare/FactSheets/Alcohol.PDF

Frank, S.J., Jacobson, S., & Tuer, M. (1990). Psychological predictors of young adults' drinking behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 770-780.

Gong, F., Takeuchi, D.T., Agbayani-Siewert, P., & Tacata, L. (2003). Acculturation, psychological distress, and alcohol use: Investigating the effects of ethnic identity and religiosity. In Chun, K.M., Organista, P.B., and Marin, G. (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement, and Applied Research (pp. 189-206). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Greeson, L.E. (1986). Discussion of media influences and other selected issues in adolescent psychology texts. American Psychologist, 41, 1385-1386.

Hoffman, H.C. (2003). Recovery careers of people in Alcoholics Anonymous: Moral careers revisited. Contemporary Drug Problems, 30, 647-683.

LeCouteur, C., Reid, S., & Byrd, M. (2001). The relationship between identity development and drinking patterns in university students. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 9, 185-206.

McCourt, M.E. (2003). A "third-generation" neuropsychology textbook? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 9, 965.

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (2001, December 14). The NHSDA report: Alcohol use. Retrieved August 14, 2002, from http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/facts.cfm

Pennebaker, J.W., Francis, M.E., & Booth, R.J. (2001). Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC): LIWC2001 [Computer software & manual]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Presley, C.A., Meilman, P.W., & Leichliter, J.S. (2002). College factors that influence drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 82-90.

Thomassen, L. (2002). An alcoholic is good and sober: Sentiment change in AA. Deviant Behavior, 23, 177-199.

Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G.W., Davenport, A., & Castillo, S. (1995). Correlates of college student binge drinking. American Journal of Public Health, 85, 921-926.

Wechsler, H., Molnar, B.E., Davenport, A.E., & Baer, J.S. (1999). College alcohol use: A full or empty glass? Journal of American College Health, 47, 247-252.

White, J.M., Montgomery, M.J., Wampler, R.S., & Fischer, J.L. (2003). Recovery from alcohol or drug abuse: The relationship between identity styles and recovery behaviors. Identity, 3, 325-345.

Ziller, R.C. (1990). Photographing the self: Methods for observing personal orientations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Patrick F. Casey and Stephen J. Dollinger

Southern Illinois University

TABLE 1.
Descriptive Statistics for Alcohol Variables and Correlations with
Demographic Variables

                                 Descriptive Statistics

Measure                         M      SD     SE    Range

Alcohol Identity               2.12   2.36   0.11   0-10
Alcohol Quantity               2.53   1.49   0.13   0-6
Alcohol Frequency              2.33   1.38   0.12   0-5
Alcohol Q-F (composite)        2.43   1.33   0.20   0-5.5
Driven Intoxicated             0.62   0.49   0.04   0-1
Binge Drinking                 0.76   0.43   0.04   0-1
Got Drunk For Own Sake         0.77   0.42   0.04   0-1
Drinking Games                 0.79   0.41   0.04   0-1
Alcohol behavior (composite)   2.94   1.75   0.15   0-4

                                 Pearson Correlations

Measure                        Gender    Age       GPA

Alcohol Identity               0.22 **   0.27 **   -0.10
Alcohol Quantity               0.31 **   0.34 **    0.02
Alcohol Frequency              0.25 **   0.29 **   -0.03
Alcohol Q-F (composite)        0.30 **   0.34 **   -0.01
Driven Intoxicated             0.16      0.04      -0.08
Binge Drinking                 0.17 *    0.07      -0.12
Got Drunk For Own Sake         0.05      0.06      -0.13
Drinking Games                 0.09      0.01      -0.09
Alcohol behavior (composite)   0.15      0.06      -0.13

Notes: Gender was coded 1=male, 0=female. Age group was coded 0=age 21
or over, 1=20 or less. Correlations for Gender and Age group are
point-biserial rs and correlations with GPA are Pearson rs. N = 135.

* p <.05. ** p <.01.

TABLE 2.
Results of Hierarchical Regression of Gender, Age, and Alcohol Identity
on Alcohol Q-F

Variable/Predictor    b      SE         CI        [beta]   [sr.sup.2]

Step 1 (constant)    4.40                                     0.21
  Gender             0.83   0.22   1.26 to 0.41    0.30
  Age                0.91   0.21   1.31 to 0.50    0.34
Step 2 (constant)    3.15                                     0.17
  Gender             0.57   0.20   0.96 to 0.18    0.20
  Age                0.60   0.19   0.97 to 0.22    0.22       3.13 **
Alcohol Identity     0.29   0.05   0.19 to 0.38    0.44       5.99 **

Variable/Predictor   [R.sup.2]   Adj [R.sup.2]

Step 1 (constant)       0.21          0.20
  Gender
  Age
Step 2 (constant)       0.38          0.36
  Gender
  Age
Alcohol Identity

Notes. b = unstandardized regression coefficients; SE = standard error;
CI = 95% confidence interval; [beta] = standardized beta weights.;
sr2 = incremental semi-partial correlations. Gender was coded: 1=male,
0=female.

* p <.05. ** p <.01.

TABLE 3
Logistic Regression Results Predicting High Risk Drinking from Gender,
Age & Identity

Composite Alcohol Behavior              b      SE      z     [e.sup.b]

Part I. Zero vs. 1-3 Alcohol Identity Photos

Alcohol Behavior (constant)           -0.81
Gender                                 0.16   0.44    0.37   0.85
Age                                   -0.07   0.42   -0.16   1.07
Alcohol Identity (0 vs. 1-3 photos)    0.87   0.43    2.05   2.40 *

Part II. Zero vs. 4 or more Alcohol Identity Photos

Alcohol Behavior (constant)           -1.00
Gender                                -0.30   0.59   -0.50   1.34
Age                                    0.02   0.59    0.03   0.98
Alcohol Identity (0 vs. [greater       2.07   0.63    3.29   7.91 **
  than or equal to] 4 photos)

Composite Alcohol Behavior                 CI        [chi square]

Part I. Zero vs. 1-3 Alcohol Identity Photos

Alcohol Behavior (constant)                               4.53
Gender                                0.36 to 2.02
Age                                   0.47 to 2.44
Alcohol Identity (0 vs. 1-3 photos)   1.04 to 5.52

Part II. Zero vs. 4 or more Alcohol Identity Photos

Alcohol Behavior (constant)                              15.61
Gender                                0.42 to 4.26
Age                                   0.31 to 3.12
Alcohol Identity (0 vs. [greater      2.31 to 27.1
  than or equal to] 4 photos)

Notes. Dependent variable is a dichotomy based on endorsement of all
four (or less than four) problem behaviors including driving
intoxicated, binge drinking, drinking to get drunk, and playing
drinking game. b = regression coefficient; SE = standard error; z =
z-score; [e.sup.b] = odds ratio (OR); CI = 95% confidence interval;
[chi square] = Chi-square. Alcohol behavior was coded: 0=endorsement
of fewer than 4 behaviors, 1=endorsement of all 4 behaviors. Alcohol
identity was coded by number of alcohol photos (0, 1-3, and 4 or more).

* p <.05. ** p <.01.