Coexisting with Large Carnivores: Lessons from Greater Yellowstone.

Coexisting with Large Carnivores: Lessons from Greater Yellowstone Edited by Tim W. Clark, Murray B. Rutherford & Denise Casey Island Press, Washington, DC 2005

Large mammalian predators form a basis for much conservation research for several reasons. As a group, they are: land dependent, and thus more extinction-prone than most other organisms; can frequently serve as both flagship and umbrella species; and, they are scary. The last has inspired mythologies from cultures worldwide and continues to do so in places where these species still occur. For any conservation issue and for any species of concern, it is well accepted that science alone, while essential, will not solve the core of the problem. The crux of decline and endangerment lies in species' interactions with humans and thus solutions will necessarily involve input from the social and policy sciences.

Tim Clark has built his professional career on the last point, and it is an important one. Yellowstone National Park itself is a symbol, as are the three large predators that inhabit its vastness: grizzlies (Ursus arctos), wolves (Canis lupus) and cougars (Felis concolor). For some, these species are symbols of a healthy wilderness and an irreplaceable natural heritage. For others, they are symbols of horror and death. For many Americans, they may be symbols of both. To an unfortunately large degree, previous federal eradication policies were so successful that the first two species are federally listed in all areas except Alaska, and the third (cougars) is listed in Florida-the only eastern state with a remnant wild population. Predators color our fears and inspire our hearts. They also present unique and fascinating issues for conservationists and conservation research.

This is the backdrop of the present volume. In total there are 10 authors, but Clark authored or co-authored six of the eight chapters, as well as the Appendix. The authors have done a masterful job of highlighting the biological, social, and economic controversy surrounding the conservation of large predators in American's first national park and in the wider region in which these species are making a comeback, where conflicts with humans exist. Part One, with two chapters, sets the context, which includes Clark's research framework on problem orientation (Chapter 1) and the management context under which action happens (Chapter 2). There is not much new here for readers who have been oriented toward this framework (i.e. many of Clark's previous volumes use it), or for those who are conversant on modern issues in natural resources management in the sparsely populated regions of the west. The authors emphasize the contrast between 'old west" and 'new west" mentalities, as the human populations themselves are greatly changing in small towns near Yellowstone. Nonetheless, the chapters are essential to set the stage for what follows. They are also brief, informative and well written.

The new meat of this volume begins with Part Two (case studies). Chapters 4, 5, and 6 take up the particular issues surrounding cougars, grizzlies and wolves, respectively. While there are some similarities among these species in terms of public perception, there are also many differences and conservation issues surrounding each, warranting separate chapters. Cougars can be hunted legally, are rarely seen by humans, and ranchers in the region express less concerns about them than grizzlies and wolves. Outfitters, whose clientele include big game hunters, have very negative views about cougars. Like all large predators, public perception of risk is much greater than any real threat and, unlike the situation elsewhere (e.g. California), there have been no human deaths attributable to cougars in Wyoming. When a female denned near Jackson, WY for a 42-day period to rear her cubs in 1999, over 15,000 people came to see her. Most were not disappointed, and this rare opportunity increased awareness and improved perceptions. Given that cougars are not federally listed in the west, they are little studied in most places. Identifying the values that people hold, what they feel is at stake with each predator, and clarifying goals of management form the crux of these chapters. Better biological research is needed in the case of cougars, as the management agency (the State in this case) has largely operated blindly on legal hunting and the issue has become politicized.

Given that the federal government is fully involved in managing grizzlies and wolves in Wyoming, and given the historical enmity between state versus federal control in the 'old west', the next two chapters are destined to be more heated. Grizzlies (Chapter 4) kill both livestock and people on rare occasions, and wolves (Chapter 5), which have never been proven to kill people in North America (there is a possible recent case in Canada), can and do affect livestock operations greatly. The wolves of Yellowstone are an experimental population introduced from Canadian stock, and their numbers have increased greatly in the past ten years. Much more is known about the status of both of these populations (compared to cougars) as a result of federal listing, and both are increasing. The ecological effects of wolves, in particular, are under close study. Since reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park, elk are less abundant and more wary, and willow and aspen stands are improving, meaning better habitat for songbirds and beaver. They have directly killed fewer livestock than was anticipated, but there is evidence that their forays can wreak havoc on herds due to panic. Thus, wolves may cause more mortality indirectly than is appreciated.

Part Three is devoted to exploring alternatives. Agriculture now forms only a small portion of the economy of western Wyoming, yet agricultural interests have dominated predator management. The authors make a plea for restoring civil society to reduce the tendency for predators to be scapegoats for more pressing societal concerns and allow more voices to be heard. The role of political appointments is also considered, as are the issues of power and control, which influence the actions and perceptions of state agencies. Chapter 8 discusses predator management as a clash of cultural problems. Of course, context matters in all cases, but there is an engaging section about applying lessons learned in Yellowstone to other settings. Are we to have a constant paramilitary presence to assure the conservation of predators, and/or are we to engage the public and all vested stakeholders to arrive at more civil solutions? This question keeps a great many professionals and researchers throughout the world busy. Although the contexts are different for tigers in Nepal or jaguars in Belize, for example, many issues are shared. The volume thus finishes with an applied guide for decision makers that is generalizable anywhere large mammalian predators still roam, and the book can be easily recommended to a number of audiences. It is aimed at professional wildlife managers, but is also of interest to a wider audience of professionals, future professionals (students) and academics in natural resources and other areas of public policy due to its breadth of coverage and focus on solutions, and to the consistent use of a standard research and problem solving framework.

Joel T. Heinen

Professor and Chair Department of Environmental Studies Florida International University Miami, Florida 

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