Citizen participation in neighborhood organizations in poor communities and its relationship to neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy.Collective efficacy describes residents' perceptions regarding their ability to work with their neighbors to intervene intervene v. to obtain the court's permission to enter into a lawsuit which has already started between other parties and to file a complaint stating the basis for a claim in the existing lawsuit. in neighborhood issues to maintain social control and solve problems. This study examines whether citizen participation in neighborhood organizations located in poor communities is related to neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy among residents. The results indicate that the more residents participated in their neighborhood organization, the greater their level of organizational collective efficacy, but not neighborhood collective efficacy. The results of the current study will help support social workers and other community practitioners understand how to effectively facilitate citizen participation in ways that enhance collective efficacy in poor communities. Implications for social work practice and research are discussed. Keywords: neighborhood collective efficacy, organizational collective efficacy, citizen participation, neighborhood organizations, poor communities, community practice, community level research ********** In recent years, there has been a revitalization re·vi·tal·ize tr.v. re·vi·tal·ized, re·vi·tal·iz·ing, re·vi·tal·iz·es To impart new life or vigor to: plans to revitalize inner-city neighborhoods; tried to revitalize a flagging economy. of community-based social work strategies that seek to enhance citizen participation and build the capacity of residents to address problems in poor communities (Johnson, 1998; Schott, 1997; Weft, 1996). These strategies have been used to confront a variety of issues, including those that pertain to pertain to verb relate to, concern, refer to, regard, be part of, belong to, apply to, bear on, befit, be relevant to, be appropriate to, appertain to at-risk youth, unemployment, affordable housing, crime and safety, and urban blight blight, general term for any sudden and severe plant disease or for the agent that causes it. The term is now applied chiefly to diseases caused by bacteria (e.g., bean blights and fire blight of fruit trees), viruses (e.g., soybean bud blight), fungi (e.g. (Chaskin, Brown, Venkatesh & Vidal, 2001; Murphy & Cunningham, 2003). Citizen participation is the active, voluntary involvement of individuals and groups to change problematic conditions in poor communities, and influence the policies and programs that affect the quality of their lives or the lives of other residents (Gamble & Weil, 1995). Citizen participation has enhanced the effectiveness of community-based social work strategies by strengthening resident participation in democratic processes, assisting groups in advocating for their needs, and building organizational and community problem-solving resources and capacities (Chaskin, et al., 2001; Johnson, 1998; Schorr, 1997; Weil, 1996). Despite the potential of citizen participation, the barriers to facilitating it can be substantial, including the multiple demands on an individual's time. Wandersman and Florin (2001) argue that a major resource of small voluntary organizations, such as neighborhood organizations, is the participation of its members, including their time and energy which must be mobilized into active involvement and performance of tasks. Therefore, it is important that residents believe they have the capacity to make a difference. Collective efficacy is a term used to describe residents' perceptions regarding their ability to work with their neighbors to intervene in neighborhood issues to maintain social control and solve problems (Wandersman & Florin, 2000). Collective efficacy is a broad term and can be conceptualized as both a neighborhood and organizational process. Neighborhood collective efficacy is defined as the connection of mutual trust and social cohesion cohesion: see adhesion and cohesion. Cohesion (physics) The tendency of atoms or molecules to coalesce into extended condensed states. This tendency is practically universal. along with shared expectations for intervening in·ter·vene intr.v. in·ter·vened, in·ter·ven·ing, in·ter·venes 1. To come, appear, or lie between two things: You can't see the lake from there because the house intervenes. 2. in support of neighborhood social control (Sampson & Raudenbush, 1999). Organizational collective efficacy is defined as an organization or group's perception of its problem-solving skills and its ability to improve the lives its members (Pecukonis & Wenocur, 1994). While there is considerable research demonstrating the positive effects of neighborhood collective efficacy on neighborhood conditions, including crime and safety (Sampson, Morenoff & Gannon-Rowley, 2002; Sampson & Groves, 1989; Rankin & Quane, 2002), less is know about the connection between citizen participation and neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy (Chavis, Florin, Rich & Wandersman, 1987; Perkins, Brown & Taylor, 1996; Sampson & Raudenbush, 1997). This study examines whether the active involvement of residents in grassroots neighborhood organizations is related to perceptions of neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy among residents in poor communities. It helps to fill a gap in current research by analyzing citizen participation as a potential social mechanism contributing to collective efficacy. The results of the current study will help to support social workers and other community practitioners understand how to more effectively facilitate citizen participation in ways that enhance collective efficacy in poor communities. Theoretical Framework and Prior Research A major goal of social work practice has been empowering individuals to promote feelings of self-esteem, efficacy, and competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. in individuals, organizations, and communities (Itzhaky & York, 2002). Social workers engage residents in neighborhood organizations to enhance their individual psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. well-being as well as their collective capacity to strengthen the systems in which they reside, particularly their often difficult neighborhoods (Checkoway, 2001). Social work practice in poor communities has been informed by theories self efficacy, and more recently collective efficacy. Theories of collective efficacy build on and are closely related to Bandura's (1982) theory of individual self efficacy, which explored an individual's belief in or self-judgment about his or her capabilities to organize and execute actions necessary to achieve desired goals. Bandura's (1989) theory of self efficacy suggests that residents who have strong beliefs in their capabilities approach potential stressors with the assurance that they can exercise some control over them, including addressing the problems often found in poor neighborhoods. Theories of self and collective efficacy help social workers understand the relationship between residents' perceptions of their individual and collective abilities and their involvement in neighborhood organizations. Neighborhood Collective Efficacy Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) propose an analogy analogy, in biology, the similarities in function, but differences in evolutionary origin, of body structures in different organisms. For example, the wing of a bird is analogous to the wing of an insect, since both are used for flight. between individual self efficacy and neighborhood efficacy in that both refer to the capacity for achieving an intended effect; however, at the neighborhood level, the shared willingness of local residents to intervene for the common good depends on conditions of mutual trust and cohesion among residents. Sampson and Raudenbush also argue that residents are not likely to take action in neighborhoods where people mistrust each other and the rules are unclear. Collective efficacy, therefore, is "the linkage linkage In mechanical engineering, a system of solid, usually metallic, links (bars) connected to two or more other links by pin joints (hinges), sliding joints, or ball-and-socket joints to form a closed chain or a series of closed chains. of cohesion and mutual trust with shared expectations for intervening in support of neighborhood social control" (Sampson & Raudenbush, pp. 612-613). Sampson (2004[b]) explains that just as self efficacy is situated relative to a particular task, collective efficacy also takes place relative to specific tasks, including maintaining public order. Furthermore, the key causal causal /cau·sal/ (kaw´z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causal relating to or emanating from cause. mechanism in collective efficacy theory is social control, which is acted upon under conditions of social trust (Sampson). Prior research demonstrates the positive effects of neighborhood collective efficacy, including social control and trust, in poor communities. An early study by Sampson and Groves (1989) found that aspects of neighborhood social organization, including high levels of local participation in organizations, expectations for informal social control, the ability of residents to guide the behavior of others toward prosocial norms, mutual support for children, and the density of local friendship networks Friendship networks colloquially describes interconnected networks of people who are connected through friendship, often described as overlapping circles of friends. worked against criminal deviance Conspicuous dissimilarity with, or variation from, customarily acceptable behavior. Deviance implies a lack of compliance to societal norms, such as by engaging in activities that are frowned upon by society and frequently have legal sanctions as well, for example, the . In their comparative longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. of Chicago neighborhoods, Sampson, Raudenbush, and Earls (1997) found that neighborhood collective efficacy was linked to reduced violence and delinquency delinquency Criminal behaviour carried out by a juvenile. Young males make up the bulk of the delinquent population (about 80% in the U.S.) in all countries in which the behaviour is reported. . Rankin and Quane (2002) found that youth were more likely to form positive peer attachments in cohesive cohesive, n the capability to cohere or stick together to form a mass. neighborhoods with high levels of neighborhood collective efficacy where parents shared responsibility for social control. Finally, Elliott and colleagues (1996) showed that the effects of neighborhood disadvantage on the developmental outcomes of adolescents were largely mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: by the level and form of neighborhood organization. They found that higher levels of informal control in a neighborhood (i.e. respect for authority, social control, mutual respect, neighborhood satisfaction and bonding) resulted in lower adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. problems and association with delinquent delinquent 1) adj. not paid in full amount or on time. 2) n. short for an underage violator of the law as in juvenile delinquent. DELINQUENT, civil law. He who has been guilty of some crime, offence or failure of duty. youth, and higher personal efficacy and educational expectations (Elliott, Huizinga, Sampson, Elliott & Rankin). Organizational Collective Efficacy Pecukonis and Wenocur (1994) define organizational collective efficacy as an organization or group's perception of its problem-solving skills and its ability to improve the lives of its members. They argue that efficacy embraced by a collective "provides a unique structural arrangement that allows individuals with common needs to combine and maximize their efforts toward a common end" (Pecukonis & Wenocur, p. 14). A key component of collective efficacy is shared beliefs about a group's collective power to produce desired results (Bandura ban`dur´a n. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 2001). The willingness of members of a community organization to engage in challenging activities, such as addressing decaying de·cay v. de·cayed, de·cay·ing, de·cays v.intr. 1. Biology To break down into component parts; rot. 2. Physics To disintegrate or diminish by radioactive decay. housing or crime, is positively associated with their perceptions of their problem-solving skills and their ability to produce positive outcomes for the community (Pecukonis & Wenocur). Therefore, the perceived efficacy of collective action is important for maintaining as well as initiating citizen participation in community organizations (Perkins & Long, 2002). Citizen Participation and Collective Efficacy There is small but growing body of research demonstrating the relationship between citizen participation in various types of community organizations and neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy. Chavis and his colleagues (1987) found that block association members were significantly more likely than non-members to have expectations of collective efficacy (i.e., defined as thinking that they can solve problems by working collectively and expecting residents to intervene to maintain social control). Moreover, members of block associations were also significantly more likely to engage in collective (as opposed to individual) anti-crime efforts than non-members. Sampson (1997) found that neighborhood collective efficacy was significantly and positively associated with organizational participation, along with friendship and kinship kinship, relationship by blood (consanguinity) or marriage (affinity) between persons; also, in anthropology and sociology, a system of rules, based on such relationships, governing descent, inheritance, marriage, extramarital sexual relations, and sometimes ties and the presence of neighborhood services. Finally, Perkins, Brown, and Taylor (1996) found that perceived organizational collective efficacy/civic responsibility and community attachments were consistently and positively related to participation in grassroots community organizations at both the individual and block levels of analysis. The above studies indicate a relationship between citizen participation in block associations and neighborhood collective efficacy, organizational participation and neighborhood collective efficacy, and participation in grassroots community organizations and organizational collective efficacy. Similar to Perkins et al. (1996), this study examines citizen participation in grassroots neighborhood and community organizations. This study adds to existing research by examining citizen participation as a social mechanism through which both neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy are facilitated in poor communities. Methods Procedures This study utilized a cross-sectional design to survey members and participants of nonprofit A corporation or an association that conducts business for the benefit of the general public without shareholders and without a profit motive. Nonprofits are also called not-for-profit corporations. Nonprofit corporations are created according to state law. neighborhood organizations located in four different neighborhoods in metropolitan Pittsburgh. All four neighborhood organizations were located in poverty areas, defined as by the U.S. Census Bureau Noun 1. Census Bureau - the bureau of the Commerce Department responsible for taking the census; provides demographic information and analyses about the population of the United States Bureau of the Census as census tracts A census tract, census area, or census district is a particular community defined for the purpose of taking a census. Usually these coincide with the limits of cities, towns or other administrative areas and several tracts commonly exist within a county. where 20% or more of the residents are poor (Bishaw, 2005). The overall purpose of these four neighborhood organizations was to improve problematic conditions, and influence policies and programs that affect the quality of life in the neighborhood. All four neighborhood organizations had locally controlled boards (i.e., composed of residents and community stakeholders Stakeholders All parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. ) and a membership base of at least 50 to 100 members. These organizations worked to improve the conditions in their neighborhoods through various community initiatives, including beautification beau·ti·fy tr. & intr.v. beau·ti·fied, beau·ti·fy·ing, beau·ti·fies To make or become beautiful. beau projects, community planning, social and recreational activities, community newspapers, affordable housing, business and economic development, crime prevention and safety, youth development, leadership development, and residential block organizing. A non-random sampling procedure was utilized in which all potential resident members and participants of the four neighborhood organizations were asked to fill out the survey. The survey was distributed door to door, at organizational meetings, and through the mail to 231 resident members and participants of the neighborhood organizations targeted for this study. The overall response rate was 54%, with a total of 124 respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. from the four neighborhood organizations who completed the survey. The response rates from each of the four neighborhood organizations individually were 39%, 51%, 53%, and 72%. The most effective data collection method was door-to-door (76% response rate), followed by organizational meetings (62% response rate), and then through the mail (26% response rate). Surveys were mailed to potential respondents only after they were not accessible at organizational meetings or by going door-to-door to their homes. Sample Demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. All of the respondents were residents of poverty areas, with the poverty rates in the four neighborhoods ranging from 24% to 38% in 1999 (USCSUR, 2002). In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , all of the respondents, whether or not they were poor themselves, resided in poverty areas. As indicated below, approximately one quarter of the survey respondents had either poverty or near poverty level incomes. Because this study was completed in 2004, it uses the poverty thresholds The poverty threshold, or poverty line, is the minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living. In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed for that year. The 2004 poverty threshold for a two-person household was $12,334, and for a two-person household with one child it ranged from $12,971 [65 years and older] to $13,020 [under 65 years old] (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). The average household size for survey respondents was 2.3 persons. Overall, 8% of survey respondents had poverty level incomes at $10,000 or less a year, and 16% had very low incomes between $10,001 and $20,000 a year. Based on the survey questions in the current study it is not possible to determine exactly which respondents fall under the 2004 poverty thresholds; however, the data indicate that 24% of respondents had poverty or near poverty level incomes. Among the remaining respondents, 24% earned between $20,001 and $35,000, 15% earned between $35,001 and $50,000, and 35% had incomes over $50,000 a year. More than half (59%) of the survey respondents were Caucasian, and 39% were African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. . Sixty-two percent were female, and almost all respondents were registered voters (97%). The average age of respondents was 58 years old, and 41% were over the age of 65, which may help to explain the fairly large percentage of respondents who were also retired (40%). Another 40% were employed full-time. The majority of survey respondents were homeowners (81%); however, the value of their homes was quite low, with almost half (48%) reporting that their homes were valued at $50,000 or less. Furthermore, respondents were very stable residents, having lived in their neighborhoods for an average of 34 years. Almost half of the respondents were married (49%), and the average household size was 2.3. The majority of respondents had some form of higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. , with 32% having a graduate or professional degree, 18% a college degree, and 25% some college. About a quarter of respondents had a high school degree (19%) or less (6%). Measures The survey instrument was seven pages and included and/or adapted the following scales which have been used in prior studies to explore neighborhood collective efficacy, organizational collective efficacy, and participation in neighborhood organizations. Please see the Appendix for a list of the items included in the measures in the current study. Neighborhood Collective Efficacy. Neighborhood collective efficacy was measured using a scale developed by Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) in their study of Chicago neighborhoods. The neighborhood collective efficacy scale combined two subscales. The 5-item informal social control subscale asked residents the likelihood, on a scale from I to 5, 1 meaning "very unlikely" to 5 meaning "very likely," that their neighbors can be counted on to do something if: "children were skipping skip v. skipped, skip·ping, skips v.intr. 1. a. To move by hopping on one foot and then the other. b. To leap lightly about. 2. school and hanging out on a street corner," and "the fire station closest to their home was threatened with budget cuts." The social cohesion/trust subscale contained 4 conceptually related items that asked residents how strongly they agreed on a scale from I to 5, 1 meaning "strongly disagree" to 5 meaning "strongly agree," with the several statements including: "People around here are willing to help their neighbors," and "This is a close-knit neighborhood." The reliability for the 9-item neighborhood collective efficacy scale in the current study was .85. Organizational Collective Efficacy. The measure for organizational collective efficacy adapted a scale developed by Perkins and Long (2002) in their study of block associations in New York City New York City: see New York, city. New York City City (pop., 2000: 8,008,278), southeastern New York, at the mouth of the Hudson River. The largest city in the U.S. . The 8-item scale in the current study asked respondents how likely on a scale from 1 to 5, 1 meaning "very unlikely" to 5 meaning "very likely" that their neighborhood organization could accomplish several goals, including: "Improve physical conditions in the neighborhood like cleanliness Cleanliness See also Orderliness. Cleverness (See CUNNING.) Berchta unkempt herself, demands cleanliness from others, especially children. [Ger. Folklore: Leach, 137] cat continually “washes” itself. or housing upkeep," "Get people in the neighborhood to help each other more," "Reduce crime in the neighborhood," and "Develop and implement solutions to neighborhood problems." The reliability for the organizational collective efficacy scale in the current study was .99. Citizen Participation in Neighborhood Organizations. Two measures were used in the current study: participation level and participation in decision making. The scale measuring participation level was adapted from the following three studies: York's (1990) 3-item organizational participation scale; Perkins and Long's (2002) 8-item citizen participation index; and additional items developed by Perkins and his colleagues (1990). In the current study, respondents were asked, on a scale from I to 5, 1 meaning "never" to 5 meaning "often," how often in the past year they had participated in various organizational activities and functions, including attending meetings, actively participating in discussions, working for the organization outside of meetings, serving as a member of a committee, serving as an officer or as a committee chair, recruiting new members, and serving as a representative of the organization to other community groups. The reliability of the 11-item participation level scale in the current study was .95. Itzhaky and York's (2000) scale measuring participation in decision making was used in the current study. Respondents were asked to indicate how involved they were in the neighborhood organization by checking one of the following items: (1) I take no part at all; (2) I play a passive role; (3) I participate in relaying information; (4) I carry out various tasks at the instruction of the staff and/or board (note: this study added "and/or board" to this item); (5) I participate partially in planning, decision making and implementation; and (6) I am a full partner in planning, decision making and implementation. Results Descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. were used to generate the means, medians, standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. , and skewness Skewness A statistical term used to describe a situation's asymmetry in relation to a normal distribution. Notes: A positive skew describes a distribution favoring the right tail, whereas a negative skew describes a distribution favoring the left tail. for the key variables in the study. Bivariate bi·var·i·ate adj. Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution. Adj. 1. correlations were used to analyze the relationships among the key study variables. Hierarchical A structure made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each item having one or more items below it. multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analyses were used to examine the relationship between the citizen participation and collective efficacy measures, controlling for neighborhood organization, race, age, and education. Descriptive Statistics Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for the key variables in the current study. The mean for neighborhood collective efficacy in the current study was 3.36, and the mean for organizational collective efficacy was 3.74 (on a scale from 1 to 5). The organizational collective efficacy scale was negatively skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data , and was transformed by squaring it. The descriptive results demonstrate that respondents had fairly neutral views about their neighborhoods' collective efficacy, and more positive views regarding the collective efficacy of their neighborhood organization. Respondents' level of participation in their neighborhood organization was 2.99 on a scale from 1 to 5, signifying Signifyin' (slang) is an African-American rhetorical device featuring indirect communication or persuasion and the creating of new meanings for old words and signs. Signifying, in this sense, includes repetition and difference, implication and association, combining words and that respondents were engaged in the organization at a moderate level. The mean for participation in decision making was 3.53 on a scale from I to 6, indicating that respondents also participated in decision making at a moderate level, from relaying information to carrying out various tasks at the instruction of the staff and/or board. Collective Efficacy and Participation in Neighborhood Organizations Bivariate results. Table 2 displays the results from the bivariate analyses. Participation level was not significantly associated with neighborhood collective efficacy [r (117) = .16, p = .09], but it was significantly associated with organizational collective efficacy [r (117) = .31, p < .01]. Furthermore, participation in decision making was not significantly associated with neighborhood collective efficacy [r (113) = .11, p = .25], but it was significantly associated with organizational collective efficacy [r (113) = .26, p < .01]. The results also demonstrate that neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy were also significantly correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with each other [r (116) = .50, p < .01]. Multivariate The use of multiple variables in a forecasting model. Results. Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to analyze the relationship between citizen participation in neighborhood organizations and both measures of collective efficacy, controlling for neighborhood organization, race, age, and education. The primary researcher controlled for neighborhood organization in the multivariate analyses by creating three dummy variables This article is not about "dummy variables" as that term is usually understood in mathematics. See free variables and bound variables. In regression analysis, a dummy variable representing the four neighborhood organizations in the study, using one group as the referent ref·er·ent n. A person or thing to which a linguistic expression refers. Noun 1. referent - something referred to; the object of a reference group. The assumptions for conducting the multiple regression analyses were also examined and met. No cases were eliminated, the examination of the histograms revealed normal distributions for all of the analyses, and examination of the residual plots revealed that the assumption of linearity was also met. Furthermore, both the Tolerance and VIF VIF - VHDL Interface Format. Intermediate language used by the Vantage VHDL compiler. "A VHDL Compiler Based on Attribute Grammar Methodology", R. Farrow et al, SIGPLAN NOtices 24(7):120-130 (Jul 1989). statistics indicated that multicollinearity was not a problem in the regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. analyses. Table 3 displays the results from the hierarchical multiple regression (HMR HMR Hazardous Materials Regulations HMR Human Resources HMR Home Meal Replacement HMR Hamrun (postal locality, Malta) HMR Hôpital Maisonneuve-Rosemont (Montréal, Canada) ) analyses. The primary researcher examined whether or not participation level and participation in decision making contributed to neighborhood or organizational collective efficacy. For neighborhood collective efficacy, R = .24, [R.sup.2.sub.adj] = -.02, F (8, 96) = .72, p = .67, and for organizational collective efficacy, R = .41, [R.sup.2.sub.adj] = .10, F (8, 96) = 2.39, p < .05, indicating that the model was not significant for neighborhood collective efficacy, but was significant for organizational collective efficacy. Furthermore, the [R.sup.2] change for organizational collective efficacy was significant indicating that participation level and participation in decision making as a block significantly contributed to organizational collective efficacy, and the amount of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality explained by this block was 10%. Upon review of the coefficients, participation in decision making was not significant; however, participation level was a significant individual contributor to organizational collective efficacy ([beta] = .323, t (96) = 2.15, p < .05). Discussion Summary and Discussion of Results The results indicate that the more residents participated in their neighborhood organization, the greater their level of organizational collective efficacy, but not neighborhood collective efficacy. The correlations demonstrated that the citizen participation measures (i.e., participation level and participation in decision making) were significantly associated with organizational collective efficacy, but not with neighborhood collective efficacy. The multivariate results demonstrated that the citizen participation measures significantly contributed to organizational collective efficacy, accounting for 10% of the variance. Furthermore, participation level individually influenced organizational collective efficacy; however, participation in decision making did not. The more residents were involved in various activities and functions of their neighborhood organization, the greater their perception of their neighborhood organizations' collective ability to solve neighborhood problems, and get people in the neighborhood to know one another and work together. Pinderhughes (1983) uses the ecological ecological emanating from or pertaining to ecology. ecological biome see biome. ecological climax the state of balance in an ecosystem when its inhabitants have established their permanent relationships with each framework to suggest that the powerlessness pow·er·less adj. 1. Lacking strength or power; helpless and totally ineffectual. 2. Lacking legal or other authority. pow of individuals and families living in poor communities can only be addressed through empowerment em·pow·er tr.v. em·pow·ered, em·pow·er·ing, em·pow·ers 1. To invest with power, especially legal power or official authority. See Synonyms at authorize. 2. strategies whereby residents can influence the external environment to reduce destructive forces and work with systems outside the family, including community organizations, to improve their difficult and poor environments. Furthermore, in the current study, residents' perceptions of their neighborhood organizations' collective ability to solve problems was fairly high. As Bandura (1982) points out, residents' perceptions of their collective abilities can influence what they choose to do to address difficult problems, the amount of effort they exert, and their staying power when their efforts fail to produce intended results. In other words, when residents have a greater sense of their own collective agency and power, they are more likely to persevere per·se·vere intr.v. per·se·vered, per·se·ver·ing, per·se·veres To persist in or remain constant to a purpose, idea, or task in the face of obstacles or discouragement. as problems get more complex and difficult to solve. Bandura (2001) also points out that a key component of collective efficacy is shared beliefs about a groups' collective power to produce desired results. It is important to note that in the current study, there was a strong positive association between organizational and neighborhood collective efficacy. In other words, the more positive residents' perceptions of their organization's capacity to produce intended results, the more positive their perceptions of their neighborhood's capacity to intervene in support of neighborhood social control. In the same study, Ohmer (2004) also found residents' perceptions of their organization's actual accomplishments and successes, particularly in achieving tangible community improvements (e.g., increased safety, improved housing and business conditions), influenced their perceptions of both neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy. The more positive residents' perceptions of their organization's actual accomplishments in improving areas such as safety and housing, the more positive their perceptions of their neighborhood and organization's collective capacity to solve problems now and in the future. Therefore, it is important for social workers to engage residents in ways that develop their sense of collective efficacy, and their ability to make tangible community improvements such as increasing neighborhood safety, affordable housing and other resources. The results indicating no relationship between citizen participation and neighborhood collective efficacy are somewhat disturbing, particularly given the linkage between neighborhood collective efficacy and crime reduction (Sampson, Raudenbush & Earls, 1997). There is limited research analyzing the social mechanisms through which neighborhood collective efficacy is effectively facilitated in poor communities. The prior studies discussed in this article examined two forms of citizen participation, one which found that participation in small scale block associations was associated with neighborhood collective efficacy (i.e., see Chavis, et al., 1987), and the other by Sampson and Raudenbush (1999) which found that organizational participation was associated with neighborhood collective efficacy. However, these studies did not examine the level or extent of involvement in these organizations and whether or not increased involvement led to increases in neighborhood collective efficacy. The current study examined the frequency (i.e., participation level) and extent (i.e., participation in decision making) of involvement in neighborhood organizations and neighborhood collective efficacy. Neighborhood collective efficacy is a fairly new concept in social work and has not been studied extensively. Because of its importance in reducing crime and violence (Sampson, et al., 1997), social work practitioners and researchers should continue to develop and examine strategies for facilitating neighborhood collective efficacy in poor communities. Potential social work practice and research strategies for facilitating and analyzing collective efficacy are discussed below. Implications for Social Work Practice The results of the current study demonstrate the importance of engaging residents in local neighborhood organizations to help them develop the confidence that they can address difficult neighborhood problems through organized collective action. Social work and community development practitioners have developed clear and deliberate strategies for building the capacity of neighborhood and community organizations and fostering a sense of organizational collective efficacy among residents who are actively involvement in such organizations (i.e., see Chaskin, et al., 2001; Checkoway, 2001; Murphy & Cunningham, 2003; Rothman, Erlich, & Tropman, 1995). Facilitating neighborhood collective efficacy, on the other hand, may require the exploration and development of different strategies that specifically focus on building the kinds of relationships necessary for social control to be activated activated a state of being more than usually active. In biological systems this is usually brought about by chemical or electrical means. Commonly said of pharmaceutical and chemical products. . While residents may develop trusting relationships and social networks with residents who are fellow members of their neighborhood organization, they may not know other non-involved residents, including neighbors on their own block. Furthermore, practitioners have spoken of an "us against them" mentality men·tal·i·ty n. The sum of a person's intellectual capabilities or endowment. that can develop in areas with strong neighborhood organizations, where involved residents see themselves as the solution and non-involved residents are viewed as part of the problem. Social workers and other community practitioners, therefore, need to focus on strategies that facilitate social networks and build trust among residents and their neighbors, whether or not they are involved in the local neighborhood organization. Practitioners need to help involved residents build bridges to non-involved residents and to see noninvolved residents as valuable when they support the goals of mutual trust and social cohesion along with shared expectations for intervening in support of neighborhood social control. For example, Sampson (2004[a]) has said crime reduction can be as simple as knowing the names of neighbors and their children. Sampson (2004[b]) also points out that trusting relationships and social networks among residents help to foster the conditions under which collective efficacy may develop; however, they are not sufficient for social control to be exercised. These relationships and networks must be acted on to be "ultimately meaningful" (Sampson, 2004[b], p. 108). Therefore, community-based strategies must provide residents with opportunities to activate social networks and trusting relationships so that residents feel they can intervene when local youth are hanging out on street corners, or when public services Public services is a term usually used to mean services provided by government to its citizens, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. are cut, such as a fire station closing on their street. Facilitating both organizational and neighborhood collective efficacy and capacity are essential to helping residents address difficult conditions in poor neighborhoods. Sampson (2004[b]) argues that strong neighborhood organizations are able to foster collective efficacy through their capacity for social action and their ability to connect and collaborate with other organizations in the neighborhood to address issues, such as garbage garbage: see solid waste. removal and school improvements. In fact, a community's capacity to solve problems is directly related to the individual capabilities of community residents, as well as the connections to and commerce with external systems of which the community is a part (Chaskin, et al., 2001). Furthermore, community capacity operates through the agency of individuals, organizations, and networks of relations designed to perform particular functions that enable a community to perform successfully (Chaskin, et al., 2001). Local neighborhood organizations are a potential vehicle through which social workers can build community capacity and facilitate neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy. However, deliberate strategies must be incorporated into the organization's overall agenda to build relationships among neighbors, develop strong organizations capable of addressing community-wide issues, and facilitate trust and social control among neighbors, including those not currently involved in the organization. For example, building leadership, using community organizing The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please [ improve this article] or discuss the issue on the talk page. to engage residents and key external resources, and fostering collaboration among community organizations can help facilitate strong neighborhood organizations and build community capacity (Chaskin, et al., 2001). Neighborhood organizations could also sponsor block-level activities to build connections with and among neighbors, including block-level organizing, crime watch groups and projects which help residents turn vacant lots into community gardens. For example, in the Kansas City Kansas City, two adjacent cities of the same name, one (1990 pop. 149,767), seat of Wyandotte co., NE Kansas (inc. 1859), the other (1990 pop. 435,146), Clay, Jackson, and Platte counties, NW Mo. (inc. 1850). Building Blocks program, community development corporations hired community organizers to work block-by-block to generate commitment and nurture NURTURE. The act of taking care of children and educating them: the right to the nurture of children generally belongs to the father till the child shall arrive at the age of fourteen years, and not longer. Till then, he is guardian by nurture. Co. Litt. 38 b. relationships with and among residents (Kansas City LISC LISC Local Initiatives Support Corporation (New York, NY) LISC Little Illini Soccer Club (Champaign-Urbana, Illinois) LISC Long Island Subaru Club LISC Laboratory for Intelligent Systems and Controls , n.d.). The community organizers assisted residents in creating a vision/ collaborative plan for their block, and developing projects to make that vision a reality, including forming crime watch groups, shutting down crack houses crack house n. Slang A building or apartment where crack cocaine is regularly sold, used, or produced. , developing community gardens, and rehabilitating dilapidated housing. Jeff Spivak (1997) reported in the Kansas City Star that the program helped to "revive To renew. For example, revival is the act of renewing the legal force of a contract or debt, either by acknowledging it or by giving a new promise, when the contract or debt is no longer a sufficient foundation for a lawsuit because it is barred by the running of the Statute relationships like those in bygone by·gone adj. Gone by; past: bygone days. n. One, especially a grievance, that is past: Let bygones be bygones. days when neighbors looked after each other, before drug dealing and gunfire drove them off their front porches" (p. All). It is important for social workers to incorporate block-level relationship and capacity building strategies into community-based efforts to facilitate neighborhood collective efficacy in poor communities. Limitations of the Current Study While the results of the current study contribute to the understanding of citizen participation and collective efficacy, there are several limitations. Prior studies on neighborhood collective efficacy have used more sophisticated research designs, including the use of nested designs and hierarchical linear modeling In statistics, hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), also known as multi-level analysis, is a more advanced form of simple linear regression and multiple linear regression. where individuals are nested within ecologically e·col·o·gy n. pl. e·col·o·gies 1. a. The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments. Also called bionomics. b. The relationship between organisms and their environment. defined groups, such as neighborhoods and structural characteristics, such as poverty, are expressed as aggregate-level measures (Sampson, et al., 2002). Nested designs allow the explicit modeling of the variation between and within groups (i.e., neighborhoods or organizations) (Coulton, Korbin & Su, 1999). The current study is limited to the analysis of the perceptions of individuals, and the data was not analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. at the organizational and/or neighborhood level. Another weakness of the current study is that it used a cross-sectional design. Cross-sectional studies cross-sectional study n. See synchronic study. cross-sectional study, n the scientific method for the analysis of data gathered from two or more samples at one point in time. have limited internal validity Internal validity is a form of experimental validity [1]. An experiment is said to possess internal validity if it properly demonstrates a causal relation between two variables [2] [3]. , thereby affecting the confidence that the results of a study accurately depict de·pict tr.v. de·pict·ed, de·pict·ing, de·picts 1. To represent in a picture or sculpture. 2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. a causal relationship (Rubin & Babbie, 2001). One of the ways that researchers attempt to improve internal validity is by "attempting to rule out the plausibility plau·si·ble adj. 1. Seemingly or apparently valid, likely, or acceptable; credible: a plausible excuse. 2. Giving a deceptive impression of truth or reliability. 3. of rival hypotheses by controlling for alternative variables through multivariate analyses" (Rubin & Babbie, 2001, p. 323). Therefore, the primary researcher for the current study controlled for several variables (i.e., demographics and neighborhood organization) in the multivariate analyses that could also have influenced the key study variables. While the high response rate in the current study allows the participating organizations to generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz) 1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic. 2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. their findings to their entire membership, the findings are not generalizable gen·er·al·ize v. gen·er·al·ized, gen·er·al·iz·ing, gen·er·al·iz·es v.tr. 1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law. b. To render indefinite or unspecific. 2. beyond the study population. However, similar types of neighborhood organizations working in poor communities in urban areas may use the results as a benchmark for measuring citizen participation and collective efficacy in their own organizations. A major strength of the current study is the reliability of the measures, which can be used in future studies analyzing citizen participation and collective efficacy in poor communities. Implications for Future Research While the results of the current study did not demonstrate a relationship between participation in neighborhood organizations and neighborhood collective efficacy, future studies could examine other forms of citizen participation to determine if they contribute to developing mutual trust/social cohesion and social control in poor communities. For example, future research could examine the impact of social work interventions on the development of neighborhood collective efficacy in poor communities, and individual and community level outcomes, such as crime and delinquency. Social work practitioners and researchers could explore, develop and implement community-based strategies that may be particularly effective in facilitating neighborhood collective efficacy such as the block level organizing program described above. Researchers could simultaneously analyze whether or not neighborhood collective efficacy developed through these strategies influences community level outcomes such as crime and disorder. In summary, the current study adds to the existing quantitative research Quantitative research Use of advanced econometric and mathematical valuation models to identify the firms with the best possible prospectives. Antithesis of qualitative research. on community practice by analyzing the relationship between citizen participation in neighborhood organizations and neighborhood and organizational collective efficacy in poor communities. The results can help social work and other community practitioners and researchers as they develop and analyze strategies to build collective efficacy in poor communities. The results of this study may also be useful in understanding how social work strategies might facilitate collective efficacy and affect individual and community level outcomes. Appendix Measures Used in the Current Study Neighborhood Collective Efficacy (a) Informal social control: Scale: from I (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). The following are things people in your neighborhood might try to do. For each one, indicate how likely your neighbors could be counted on to do something if... 1. children were skipping school and hanging out on a street corner 2. children were spray painting graffiti graffiti Form of visual communication, usually illegal, involving the unauthorized marking of public space by an individual or group. Technically the term applies to designs scratched through a layer of paint or plaster, but its meaning has been extended to other markings. on a local building 3. children were showing disrespect to an adult 4. a fight broke out in front of their house 5. the fire station closest to their home was threatened with budget cuts (b) Social cohesion/trust. Scale: from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with Verb 1. disagree with - not be very easily digestible; "Spicy food disagrees with some people" hurt - give trouble or pain to; "This exercise will hurt your back" each of the statements below: 1. People around here are willing to help their neighbors 2. This is a close-knit neighborhood 3. People in this neighborhood generally don't get along with each other 4. People in this neighborhood do not share the same values Organizational Collective Efficacy Scale: from 1 (very unlikely) to 5 (very likely). The following are things a neighborhood organization might try to do. For each one, indicate how likely it is that (name of neighborhood organization) can accomplish that goal. 1. Improve physical conditions in the neighborhood like cleanliness or housing upkeep 2. Get people in the neighborhood to help each other more 3. Persuade the city to provide better services to people in the neighborhood 4. Reduce crime in the neighborhood 5. Get people who live in the neighborhood to know each other 6. Increase decent, affordable housing in the neighborhood 7. Improve the business district in the neighborhood 8. Develop and implement solutions to neighborhood problems Citizen Participation in Neighborhood Organizations Participation Level: Scale: from 1 (Never) to 5 (Often). We would like to know what kinds of things people have done with (name of neighborhood organization). In the past year, how often have you ... 1. Attended organizational functions and activities 2. Actively participated in discussions 3. Attended meetings of the organization 4. Done work for the organization outside of meetings 5. Served as a member of a committee 6. Served as an officer or as a committee chair 7. Helped organize activities (other than meetings) 8. Tried to recruit new members 9. Tried to get people out for meetings and activities 10. Served as a representative of the organization to other community groups 11. Worked on other activities for the organization Participation in Decision Making. How involved are you in (name of neighborhood organization)? (Check One) 1. I take no part at all 2. I play a passive role 3. I participate in relaying information 4. I carry out various tasks at the instruction of the staff and/or board 5. I participate partially in planning, decision making and implementation 6. I am a full partner in planning, decision making and implementation References Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist The American Psychologist is the official journal of the American Psychological Association. It contains archival documents and articles covering current issues in psychology, the science and practice of psychology, and psychology's contribution to public policy. , 37, 122-147. Bandura, A. (1989). Regulation of Cognitive Processes Cognitive processes Thought processes (i.e., reasoning, perception, judgment, memory). Mentioned in: Psychosocial Disorders through Perceived Self-Efficacy. Developmental Psychology developmental psychology Branch of psychology concerned with changes in cognitive, motivational, psychophysiological, and social functioning that occur throughout the human life span. , 25(5), 729-735. Bandura, A. (2001). Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales. Stanford University Stanford University, at Stanford, Calif.; coeducational; chartered 1885, opened 1891 as Leland Stanford Junior Univ. (still the legal name). 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It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY: Aldine De Gruyter. Chavis, D.M., Florin, P., Rich, P.R., & Wandersman, A. (1987). The role of block associations in crime control and community development: the Block Booster Booster - A data-parallel language. "The Booster Language", E. Paalvast, TR PL 89-ITI-B-18, Inst voor Toegepaste Informatica TNO, Delft, 1989. Project. Final Report to the Ford Foundation. New York: Citizens Committee for New York City. Checkoway, Barry. (2001). Core Concepts for Community Change. In Tropman, J., Erlich, J., and Rothman, J. (eds.), Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. . 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A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. . University of Pittsburgh. Pecukonis, E. V., & Wenocur, S. (1994). Perceptions of Self and Collective Efficacy in Community Organization Theory and Practice, Journal of Community Practice, 1(2), 5-21. Perkins, D. D., Brown, B. B., & Taylor, R. B. (1996). The ecology ecology, study of the relationships of organisms to their physical environment and to one another. The study of an individual organism or a single species is termed autecology; the study of groups of organisms is called synecology. of empowerment: Predicting participation in community organizations. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 85-110. Perkins, D., Florin, P., Rich, R., Wandersman, A., & Chavis, D. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115. Perkins, D. D., & Long, D. A. (2002). Neighborhood Sense of Community and Social Capital: A multi-level analysis. In A. Fisher, C. Sonn & B. Bishop (Eds.), Psychological sense of community: Research, applications, and implications (pp. 291-318). New York: Plenum In a building, the space between the real ceiling and the dropped ceiling, which is often used as an air duct for heating and air conditioning. It is also filled with electrical, telephone and network wires. See plenum cable. . Pinderhughes, E. (1983). Empowerment for our clients and for ourselves. Social Casework case·work n. Social work devoted to the needs of individual clients or cases. case  work , 64(6), 331-338.Rankin, B. R., & Quane, J. M. (2002). Social Context and Urban Adolescent Outcomes: The Interrelated in·ter·re·late tr. & intr.v. in·ter·re·lat·ed, in·ter·re·lat·ing, in·ter·re·lates To place in or come into mutual relationship. in Effects of Neighborhoods, Families, and Peers of African-American Youth. 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This article is about reference works. For the subnotebook computer, see .
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Table 1
Descriptive Statistics for Key Study Variables
Variable N Mean Median
Citizen Participation:
Participation Level 121 2.99 3.10
Participation in
Decision Making 117 3.53 3.00
Collective Efficacy:
Neighborhood
Collective Efficacy 118 3.36 3.44
Organizational
Collective Efficacy 118 3.74 3.88
Variable SD Skewness
Citizen Participation:
Participation Level 1.23 .03
Participation in
Decision Making 1.66 .21
Collective Efficacy:
Neighborhood
Collective Efficacy 0.77 -.30
Organizational
Collective Efficacy 0.78 -.83/-.09 *
* Transformed variable measure
Table 2
Correlations among Citizen
Participation &
Collective Efficacy
Variable PL PDM NCE
Participation Level (PL)
Participation in Decision
Making (DM) .77 **
Neighborhood Collective
Efficacy (NCE) .16 .11
Organizational Collective
Efficacy (OCE) .31 ** .26 ** .50 **
* p < .05; ** p < .01; two tailed
Table 3
HMR for Citizen Participation and
Collective Efficacy Measures
[DELTA]
Variable B SE B [beta] t [R.sub.2]
Neighborhood
Collective
Efficacy:
Step 1 .00
Age -.02 .01 -.01 -.04
Education -.04 .07 -.O6 -.58
Race .01 .14 .01 .08
Step 2 .02
Group 1 .18 .21 .12 .83
Group 2 .30 .29 .12 .12
Group 3 .37 .30 .21 .21
Step 3 .04
Participation Level .11 .10 .18 1.14
Participation in
Decision Making .01 .08 .01 .08
Organizational
Collective
Efficacy:
Step 1 .04
Age .00 .01 -.01 -.11
Education .77 .45 .18 1.72
Race -.34 1.00 -.03 -.34
Step 2 .04
Group 1 2.25 1.47 .21 1.51
Group 2 2.37 2.04 .13 1.16
Group 3 3.70 2.10 .29 1.76
Step 3 .10 **
Participation Level 1.43 .66 .32 2.15 *
Participation in
Decision Making -.02 .51 .00 .00
* p <.05; ** p <.01
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