Children as the textbook: I was knocked off my pedestal. (The scholarship of teaching and learning).

Abstract

This work examines the impact of using student interactions with children as one of the primary course texts in a Child Welfare Policies and Services class. Final course journal entries are analyzed using grounded theory to present themes. Pedagogical implications for prejudice reduction and presenting the resilience approach are discussed. The outcomes of this study demonstrate the multidimensionality of inductive, process-based teaching and its positive impact on students and teacher alike. Innovations to be implemented as a result of this investigation and recommendations for additional research are noted.

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Learning begins with experience. The underlying assumption of this article is that learning and experience gained beyond the teacher as the disseminator of all wisdom has the most lasting impact for students. Bearing this in mind the author retooled a child welfare service-learning course in an effort to maximize student learning. The service-learning/experiential component is intended to enhance the knowledge and skills determined to be important within the context of the child welfare arena. Additionally, the service learning/experiential component, working with children, was intentionally presented as the third text for the class. All students worked at the same agency for 30 hours over the course of the semester in the after school program.

The goal of the third text was to examine a community based children's program from a resource, administrative, developmental, and programmatic perspective. The concept of the risk orientation versus the resilience approach or strengths perspective was presented to provide an additional lens to analyze the after school program as well as children's services in general. Risk orientation was presented as the application of a medical model for disease prevention to the broad human services field. The risk orientation posits that planned intervention strategies will minimize or remove various risk factors with the effect of reducing the social or educational risk leading to higher rates of success (Brown, D'Emidio-Caston, & Benard, 2001). Using the risk orientation for over 20 years has resulted in labeling youth and families as "at risk" to qualify them for preventative programs or services often before any pathology is demonstrated. The dizzying number of risk factors causes many service providers to view almost every client as being at risk for something. Baizerman and Compton (1992) observe that the application of the risk factor model creates a population of at risk youth that suggests that the youth and their families are both the problem and its cause. The 20 plus years of incorporating the risk orientation into education and service delivery impacted the thinking of the students in the course based on comments in subsequent sections.

The resilience approach or strengths perspective was presented as a counterpoint to the risk orientation. Long-term studies tell us that upwards of 70% of youth growing up in high-risk conditions develop a level of social competence adequate to deal with severe environmental stress. Social competence along with supportive relationships leads to a successful life (Brown et.al., 2001, p. 17). The protective factors associated with the resilience approach or strengths perspective are more than just the opposite of risk factors. They represent a separate group of factors that most importantly do not adhere to the deviance assumption associated with the risk perspective (Brown & Horowitz, 1993). The key principles of the resilience approach are decision making, building on interests and strengths, linking emotions and learning, and a healthy democratic community (Brown et.al., 2001, p. 19). Connecting the key principles with supportive adult relationships provides a framework for effective program development as well as a tool to analyze youth programming.

The third text was designed to enhance and expand the course content through a process of participation, observation, reflection, and hopefully, action either now or in the future when working with youth. The third text provided a tangible context for the two traditional textbooks. The community agency partner, an after school program primarily for working class families, clearly understood the course purposes. The course purposes and the community agency's service needs meshed reinforcing the concept of reciprocity. The unmistakable mutuality of the partnership is posited by the author to be an important factor in the higher quality of service delivered and seemingly deeper engagement with course content by students. This finding reinforces Morton (1996) who suggests that a vibrant service-learning curriculum requires strong community partners that "are committed to both community impact and student learning" (p.280).

Learning is shaped by what the student brings to the classroom in terms of prior knowledge or myths and life experiences (Rosenberg, 1998). A single agency based service setting offers the opportunity for students to extend classroom content with a similar base of experience incorporated not only with what the student brings into the course, but for purposes of discussion, reflection and integration as well. This is experiential education. "Experiential education is inductive, beginning with `raw' experience that is processed through an intentional learning format and transformed into working, usable knowledge" (NSEE, 1998, p.3). This article has as its primary focus a description of student reactions and reflections, and the transformation of these into knowledge for individual and collective development.

Knowledge stems, in part, from the combination of grasping experience (concrete and experimental) and transforming it (conceptualization and reflection) into action or a format that can be used for action (Kolb, 1984). The group-based projects along with other assignments were designed to lead to an integration and understanding of the impact that social policy, service delivery systems, and practice methodologies have within the child welfare arena. This pedagogy meshes with the resilience approach allowing students to experiment with analysis in the context of a supportive community (the class).

Conceptual Framework and Methodology

The purpose of this work is to identify and analyze student-generated themes looking at what is important from a student perspective regarding interactions with children who likely come from differing cultural, educational, and socio-economic backgrounds. Final course journal entries discussing what event/experience impacted the student the most and what actions the student might take because of the event/experience are used as the data. Selection of the final entry allows for a more fully developed and integrated reflection process by the student.

Grounded theory, as developed by Glaser and Strauss (1967), is the methodology utilized. Grounded theory is a qualitative method that recognizes the emergence of patterns of behavior, thought processes, and life experiences. Qualitative methods allow access to student reflections and reactions as well as an opportunity to follow new avenues of thought developed through course directives and experiences. The "thick description" of the methodology permits others to decide for themselves which findings to employ in their situation (Wolcott, 1990). Using the journal entry as the primary level of interpretation allows one to begin with the point of view of the student. The second level of interpretation provides an opportunity to develop a sense of meaning related to the delivery of services using the frameworks provided for analysis.

Child Welfare Policies and Services is an elective course offered through the Social Work department and is also an elective in the Family Issues minor. Disciplines taking the course included social work, psychology, nursing, education and sociology. There were twenty-eight students enrolled, twenty-six females and two males. All students consented in writing to have their journals copied for faculty use after completion of the course. Student journals were analyzed using open coding, leading to the construction of coding categories demonstrating themes and patterns.

Student journal content is presented using the following identified themes in conjunction with risk and resilience factors as well as multicultural implications:

Perceptions of/reactions to the children
Perceptions of/reactions to the program
Reflections on class and culture
Reflections on politics and advocacy

Perceptions of and reactions to the children: The majority of the students in the course were middle class and above. Twenty-seven were Euro-American and one was African-American. These demographics point to using the experience as a means to reduce prejudice or stereotyping. The long-term, intense contact the students had with the children meets the criteria as put forth in the concept of contact theory as a means of reducing prejudice (Cook, 1985).

* "Most of the children were underprivileged and that was a reality check for me. They were no different from other kids and everyone there seemed to have a positive and bright outlook on life."

* "The children have many different family structures. Often times the children's last name did not match the parent(s) last name."

* "These children were very open and loving toward me. They aren't all rough kids with bad behaviors. I realized that all children have special abilities and strengths."

* "I have seen evidence of the variation of learning styles, childhood passion, and the impact of achievement on a child's attitude."

* "I was most impacted by breaking down the myths about the children and their families that attend (the program). I was knocked off my pedestal."

Most of the students had worked with children in some capacity but less than a third with children who differed from them in way they considered significant. Not only do the students' comments demonstrate willingness to change their attitudes but a willingness to share their changes with peers. Comments also revealed a motivation to meet the children on their terms, a key component of the resilience/strengths approach.

* "The children were very needy for one on one attention. He just wanted me sitting down there next to him. They actually wanted to do their homework if someone was willing to just sit down next to them while they did it"

* "Another thing I have learned that helps to make a difference in a kids life is taking the time to discover what their interests are and encouraging those passions."

The most important and consistent theme is that of a readiness to embrace new perceptions regarding all children and to share their newfound discoveries. The social norms of the class favored contact with different groups and a reexamination of previous stereotypes. It is posited that the supportive class community also fostered the willingness of students to explore new ways of viewing the world.

Perceptions of/ reactions to the program: Consistently the reactions about the program revealed keen observations and a thoughtfulness about what the students were seeing and experiencing regarding the program itself.

* "There is a stigmatization that is connected to (the program), but breaking down the myths and getting a positive word out will advantage the children and their parents. I feel I can make a difference by speaking up to groups of my friends about these children and (the program) too, having had a solid experience with them."

* "I really never knew the extent of the service and the terrific kids that attend. It is my duty to spread the word about (the program) and the need for people to volunteer."

* "I didn't see one child at who was unhappy to be there. Children like a supportive atmosphere and need the interaction the role models there offer them."

The students' skills in deciphering the goals of the program through participation enhanced their ability to understand the program's objectives as contrasted with other youth programming prompting more than one response of this nature ... "Hopefully, I will not judge another program based on another's objectives."

Reflections on social class and culture: In the helping professions it is important that one be able to identify their own worldview and how that worldview might influence work with others, in this case children and their families.

* "We discussed the `boxes' we have for things and people in class. It was interesting to see how different social classes perceive different things also. I think by actually participating in activities at (the program) that it helped me to diminish some of my `boxes'."

* "I found myself thinking about the discussion of the importance of cultural sensitivity. It was fascinating. It seems like such a simple concept, however I had never really thought much about it. I saw the concept at work at (the program) on several occasions. Songs I had learned as a child they had never heard of, it seems like such a minor fact, but it made me reflect on just how differently people grow up in distinct areas."

* "It is extremely important not to be ethnocentric or a least try and realize it when working with kids from diverse backgrounds. Every child comes from a unique family and most of them are working fine."

These reflections demonstrate a powerful connection between class content and the impact of a concrete experience where links are real and meaningful. A key realization evident in the comments is that difference can be viewed in a neutral manner.

Reflections on politics and advocacy: Often times, from this faculty member's perspective, the most difficult connection to make in a practice related class is the connection between practice and policy, politics, and advocacy. The comments here show that the importance of politics and advocacy are not elusive concepts for these students. They understand the correlation in terms of effective services.

* "It seems like when politicians use big words like family centered they are just trying to get attention. It feels like the kids are the last things on their minds. They need the knowledge that these kids are real people with feelings and issues that need to be considered when making decisions and policies."

* "I have realized the extent to which many children are overlooked. Whether the condition is poverty or otherwise, children do not have a voice and must rely on others to help them. I guess I will have to be a voice to try and change the system that is limiting them."

* "A major problem it seems to me is that the policy and legislation is made without an idea of what kids need, but without a real awareness of the kids a policy maker cannot really do the best for them."

* "Voting to implement legislation and voting for legislators who will support child welfare policies is also a way in which I can make a difference."

The opportunity for all students to experience the same setting and be directed to look at the programming holistically is posited to have given students a framework to make important linkages. The framework allowed them to grasp connections between policy and resource allocation as well as how public and private funders value children's programming.

Discussion

The results of this work lend strong support to continuing a single setting experiential child welfare course. The concept of children as the third text was positively reinforced. There was consistent evidence of the development new attitudes and critical thinking skills so vital to the helping professions.

   "The major factor that impacted me the most in terms of the child welfare
   course was the direct application of the material covered in class."

Students were able to experience the reality of issues covered in the text by meeting real people experiencing real problems.

   `Even though we had learned about the challenges and problems surrounding
   childcare especially for low-income families, it was not until I actually
   got to see a parent frustrated over the lack of affordable childcare that I
   really understood how realistic of a problem it was."

Numbers and charts do not bring this level of understanding to an issue. This level of understanding is critical for effective advocacy leading to change.

The unintended consequences of using children as the textbook were the connections students were able to make regarding social class and cultural differences. Material regarding cultural sensitivity and the impact of one's own worldview was presented and discussed in class. The goal of prejudice or stereotype reduction was not a specific class objective. Based on early class discussions and journal entries the instructor added the specific goal of stereotype reduction, in a latent manner to the class. Investigation of an effective framework to accomplish the goal led to using of the principles of contact theory in the context of service-learning/experiential education for the remainder of the class. According to contact theory, the following contact conditions are necessary to reduce prejudice:

1. Pursuit of common goals
2. Equal status contact
3. Contact that contradicts stereotypes
4. Long-term contact
5. Social norms that favor contact (Cook, 1985, p.63)

The orientation of the students, using children as the textbook, a supportive agency, and the necessary contact conditions combined to mitigate the inherent defensiveness often present when trying to alter attitudes. The latent nature and delayed addition of prejudice reduction as a class goal may have contributed to the apparent authentic stereotype reduction. Continued evaluation of future sections of the class will shed information on the previous statement.

Not only were immediate changes seen in student attitudes and insights, but over a quarter of the students are currently volunteering at the program. A student in the class developed a group designed to keep continuing students connected with each other and provide support for each other. Continuing to volunteer at the program reflects a change in personal behavior based on an individual students belief in their personal ability to affect change. The instructor did not teach this, the students "got" this through reflecting on their own experiences. The children were not only the textbook but potent illustrations as well.

Trusting and valuing the students perceptions throughout the semester led the class to a richness not anticipated at the outset by the instructor. The students left the class engaged and enthusiastic. The instructor left the class enriched, energized, and humbled by the passion and insights of the students. The student-generated insights relating to worldview and stereotype reduction are course components that will be more intentionally addressed in the next delivery of the course.

Implications for further research include locating or developing an instrument to measure pre and post course attitudes relating to stereotypes/prejudice and service delivery and/or perceptions of clients. Another avenue for exploration is the impact of the agency staff on the attitudes of students. Understanding the difference between exposure and engagement' leading to change on a personal level is important. Understanding this distinction is important to a variety of disciplines educating young professionals for work with a variety of children and their families.

References

Baizerman, M. & Compton, D. (1992). From respondent and informant to consultant and participant: The evolution of a state agency policy evaluation. In A. Madison (Ed.), Minority Issues in program evaluation (New Directions in Program Evaluation, Vol. 53. pp.5-16). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brown, J., D'Emido, M., & Benard, B. (2001). Resilience Education. Thousand Oaks, CA.: Corwin Press, Inc.

Brown, J. & Horowitz, J. (1993). Deviants and deviants: Why adolescent substance use prevention programs do not work. Evaluation Review, 17, 529-555.

Cook, S. (1985). Experimenting on social issues: The case of social desegregation. American Psychologist, 40, 452-460.

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Morton, K. (1996). Issues related to integrating service-learning into the Curriculum. In B. Jacoby (Ed.), Service-learning in higher: concepts and practices (pp.276-296). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

National Society for Experiential Education Foundations Document Committee (1998). Foundations of experiential education. Raleigh, NC: National Society for Experiential Education.

Rosenberg, S. (1998). Reconstructing college for current social and cultural trends. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 2 (4), 62-64.

Wolcott, H.F. (1990). Writing up qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Karen A. Ford, James Madison University, VA

Karen, DSW is an undergraduate educator committed to engaging students in the community and fostering change-oriented thinking.