Child development and playgrounds.

Once limited to major American cities, today's interest in playgrounds is unprecedented. As a product of the Industrial Revolution, the playground and recreation movement of the early 1900s was largely urban based, but the current movement is nationwide and includes urban and rural areas, public parks, public and private schools, child development centers, backyards, and fast food restaurants. Increased interest has also expanded opportunities in indoor pay-for-play centers, theme parks, zoos, and children's museums. The development of national safety guidelines and standards (American Society for Testing and Materials, 1993, 1995; Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1981, 1991, 1994), began during the mid-1970s; the standards are now influencing--indeed directing--thought and action in playground planning, development and use.

Although attention to playground safety is long overdue, the uninformed and overzealous application of safety standards may be as harmful as inattention to safety. Too often developmentally inappropriate playgrounds, paranoia about children's safety, injury litigation, and physical destruction of playgrounds can be the result. The very welcome interest in playground safety can be tempered and illuminated with a focus on the child.

The importance of play in childhood development is widely misunderstood among the general population. Most adults view play as frivolous and unimportant. Fortunately for children, a growing number of sponsors are developing state-of-the-art play environments that challenge creativity while remaining relatively safe. We can plan innovative, developmentally appropriate playgrounds by examining the importance of play in child development, the influences of cultural change on children's play and child development and age influences.

Importance of Play in Child Development

Perhaps the most pressing need in planning play environments is understanding the nature of play and its importance in children's cognitive, social, language, and motor development. There is a rapidly growing body of evidence that play is central--indeed critical--to childhood development. Biologists and psychologists agree that play influences development; here is what they have to say. Research on play by biologists, psychiatrists, primatologists, psychologists, psychobiologists, evolutionary biologists, educators, and anthropologists, conclude that play isn't just fun. Young mammals can't do without it (Brownlee, 1997). For a variety of species, including humans, play is "nearly as important as food and sleep." Through play, particularly make-believe or imaginative play, children gain emotional and mental mastery, and lay the groundwork for creative thinking. Play is serious business.

Play promotes cognitive development (Bruner, Jolly and Sylva, 1976; Smith, 1982). Play leads to discovery, reasoning, manipulative skills, divergent production and improves problem solving (Dansky, 1980; Sylva, 1977). All sorts of learning, about information, about people (including self), and about customs, are embedded in play (Yeatman and Reifel, 1992). Biologists who study play conclude that "play is a vital activity that helps the brains of young animals develop," and through play "children practice many of the skills they will need as adults." Further, "the intense sensory and physical stimulation that comes with playing is critical to the growth of ...cerebellar synapses..(Angier, 1992)." This is supported by brain scans of Romanian orphans which show that deprivation of play and human interaction result in biological regression of brain development (ABC-TV January 16, 1997). The experiences of childhood, especially play, help form the brain's circuits. If neurons are not used they may die (Begley, 1996).

"Zap: neurons in the brain's amygdala send pulses of electricity through the circuits that control emotion. You hold him (infant) on your lap and talk...and neurons from his ears start hardwiring connections to the auditory cortex. And you thought you were just playing with your kid (Begley, 1996)."

Play promotes social development (Shure, 1981; Ladd and Mize, 1983) and motor development (Gabbard, 1979; Myers, 1985). Play provides opportunities to learn social roles and rules as well as a socially shared system of symbols, including language (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978; Yeatman and Reifel, 1992). Not only is play associated with the development of specific motor skills but biologists conclude that "the vigorous movements of play help in the maturation of muscle tissue ...(Angier, 1992)."

Play promotes physical fitness and health. Sedentary lifestyles and junk food--coupled with reduction of physical education, play and work--are resulting in a nation of flabby, short-winded kids with elevated cholesterol and blood pressure levels and declining strength and heart-lung endurance (Deitz and Gortmaker, 1985; Winston, 1984; Ross and Gilbert, 1985; Javernick, 1988; Dennis: et al., 1988).

Play is therapeutic. The therapeutic benefits of play are pronounced during play, especially make believe or symbolic play. The young child's play is equivalent to the adult's language in expressing self and resolving conflicts (Axline, 1962; Landreth, 1995). A growing body of research, reviewed by Landreth (1995) concludes that playing helps children to resolve conflicts resulting from child abuse, family disruptions and other trauma.

Play promotes learning. Two major theorists, Jean Piaget and Leo Vygotsky, are perhaps the most respected theorists regarding the role of play in learning. Piaget (1962) believed that children construct their own logical and social reality through experiences with physical objects, as in play. Vygotsky (1962) proposed that children have a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD), a range of tasks between those the child can handle independently and those she can master with the help of adults and more competent peers. Unlike Piaget, who believed that the child's spontaneous activity was central in learning, Vygotsky believed that social interaction with more competent peers was essential. Further, he proposed that play actually creates a ZPD. Make-believe (symbolic or representational) play is highly influential in expanding a child's level of thought and action. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed that children construct their own knowledge and are not merely passive. Consequently, three factors are essential in learning through play; 1) materials for pray, 2) opportunities for play, and 3) supportive adults and more competent peers.

Influences of Cultural Change on Children's Play

Not long ago children enjoyed the support of the entire community in preparing to meet and master everyday challenges end hazards. Families were more likely to be intact, one parent was more likely to stay at home and be available to children throughout the day, and communities were smaller. Children knew the adults in their neighborhoods; adults assisted neighbor's children; television was less intrusive; and drugs and violent gangs of children were virtually unknown. Parents felt secure in allowing children to roam and play freely in playgrounds and throughout the community. Now, parents are fearful for their children's safety in the community and play deprivation is seen as a factor that contributes to juvenile violence (Frost and Jacobs, 1996).

Children of a few decades ago learned through play and work, especially those reared in rural areas. From an early age they interacted with nature, explored hills and streams, and cared for animals under the tutelage of adults, and learned to identify potentially dangerous conditions. They learned to use tools, to appreciate heights, to plant and nurture gardens, to sort out dangerous animals from docile ones, and in-so doing, they developed highly refined perceptual and motor skills and learned to cope with hazards.

During the past three decades, a growing array of environmental hazards challenge children and place them at risk of injury or harm. Many parents have abdicated traditional responsibility for child rearing: they spend too little time with their children and allow television and peers to become major role models and sources of information. They attempt to compensate for fragmented parenting with holiday and weekend entertainment. Taking the kid for junk food and a run around the playscape or on an occasional trip to a mega-entertainment complex substitutes for regular play times and missed visits to the child's school and temporarily relieves guilt. The "Disney Dad" who rarely sees his children except for an outing to a theme park exemplifies this deplorable state of parenting and helps to explain the failure of many children to develop judgment and skill in physically challenging contexts. If children are to cope with hazards in their everyday life, they must have adults who guide them early on, assisting in recognizing and coping with danger.

Many children go home after school to empty houses, consume junk food and watch television until one or more worn-out adults come home to join them in the evening's silent routine. Children are not allowed to go outside after school because of perceived and real dangers in the neighborhood; most neighborhoods lack challenging, supervised, safe places to play. This may result in children being unsafe in any playground for they spend too little time in rich, challenging play environments to develop perceptual-motor skills. They grow up clumsy, brittle and insecure for they have not learned to use tools. Such opportunities may seem an insignificant condition but such is the stuff through which the child's life is shaped.

It is neither possible or desirable to develop absolutely safe environments for children. These would be sterile and uninviting. Children are naturally drawn to challenging environments rich with play materials. Construction sites, creative playgrounds, swimming pools, skating areas, zoos, and wilderness areas invite and challenge children; however, they may pose hidden hazards, particularly for very young children who have not developed logical thought (reflective, evaluative, cause/effect thinking), as well as those who are clumsy or uncoordinated. We can learn from Europeans (English and Scandinavian) who train playleaders (playworkers) and open challenging, diverse playcenters for extensive periods of play. (Boner and Lindon, 1996). Children will play; closing playgrounds will drive them to hazardous streets and vacant lots.

Developmental and Age Differences in Play and Playgrounds

The following should not be interpreted to suggest that children should be segregated by age or development for playground play. There is a "playground culture" (Sutton-Smith, 1990) that should be respected. Children from all ages learn from one another and should have opportunities to interact across the age span. Recess play and free play in general is different from organized games or sports in many respects. First, it is free, allowing children to play most any way they choose. Second, it is supported by a wide range of materials -- manufactured and natural. Third, it allows children to explore and learn according to their natural tendencies and needs, and fourth, it allows children to learn from one another. Consequently, different age groups should have many opportunities to play together and time-honored recess and free play must be preserved.

Infants and Toddlers (ages two and under). Playgrounds for infants and toddlers are perhaps the most overlooked play places. Toddlers engage in primitive make-believe play and games with rules as well as exploration and simple motor or exercise play (Vygotsky, 1966; Berk, 1994b). The bases for more elaborate play and for, more complex motor, cognitive and social development have their foundations here. The properly equipped playground for any age group must include materials and opportunities to engage in all the natural forms of play characteristics of that age group (Frost, 1992).

Playgrounds for infants should be simple, sanitary and separate from play areas for older children. These can be near older children's play areas and opportunities for interaction should be available. However, precautions should be taken to protect infants and toddlers from the traffic of older children. Infant's play materials are selected objects and toys, complemented with clean areas for crawling, obstacles for challenge, and enclosures for safety. As children grow into the toddler stage (ages one to two) and begin walking, they become increasingly mobile. During this period, cognitive, social, motor and emotional development is rapid and leads to a growing sense of independence. Toddlers are avid explorers, trying out everything in the immediate environment but their curiosity frequently threatens their safety. They are attracted to and will walk into pools of water, toddle off heights, touch wild animals, or run into the paths of cars. When they sit on or place their hands on hot metal (e.g., bare metal playground slides and decks) they may remain immobile and suffer severe burns. They may be unaware of the consequences of their actions and must be protected by adults.

As toddlers learn and accept common rules of behavior, adults must supervise them closely and take steps to reduce the hazards they may encounter. This is frequently called "child-proofing" but absolute "proofing" is not really possible under normal conditions. Toddlers must take acceptable risks in order to learn how to protect themselves. The adult attempts to reduce hazards to a reasonably acceptable level, focusing on avoiding or removing those that could result in loss of life or debilitating injury. As toddlers experience challenges and think about steps for solving problems, they gradually learn to anticipate the consequences of their actions and are better able to protect themselves from previously unrecognized hazards. Adults should encourage experimentation in reasonably safe environments; "trying on for size" is essential to a toddler's learning.

The curiosity and high activity levels of toddlers can cause considerable anxiety for caretakers--parents or other adults--especially in public play and entertainment environments such as playgrounds, pools, zoos, and amusement parks. In such places the caretaker must stay in visual and auditory range at all times and stay within range for physical restraint when necessary. With toddlers there will be breakdowns or lapses in supervision. Consequently, caretakers must evaluate carefully the environments they allow toddlers to enter, and those responsible for operating public play and entertainment places must meet or exceed common regulations and standards for child safety. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has published the Standard Consumer Safety Specification on Toy Safety (1986) and is developing a standard for playground equipment for children ages two and under (toddlers).

Preschoolers (ages two to five). The preschool child has generally developed beyond the toddler in physical appearance, height and weight, levels of activity, refinement of motor skills, thinking processes, knowledge of events, language and communication, social skills, and emotional maturity. Their motor skills allow them to gain access to previously forbidden or inaccessible places such as pools, heights, trees, walls, deck railings, and fences. They are highly motivated to play on such challenging devices. The conceptual development of this age group is developing rapidly but most are still engaging in pre-logical thought and lack high levels of skill in recognizing and evaluating potentially hazardous conditions. Further, they are increasingly influenced by peers and may participate in motor challenges beyond their abilities in order to impress or compete with them. Such risks often lead to injury, particularly on playgrounds, but also in other public places.

Preschoolers experience an increase in fears and anxieties. They have vivid imaginations, engage frequently in symbolic (make-believe) play, model after graphic television, assume the fears of adults around them, and may have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy. The fears of some children are specific to certain events. The child who has been mauled by a dog or burned on a hot surface may generalize her fears to other animals and to other surfaces (Berk, 1994a). Some children may show little fear in most contexts, even in very hazardous situations. They may approach vicious animals as though they were docile pets, they may display little fear of heights, water, or automobiles in streets. They may play hangman in realistic fashion (like on television), actually fashioning a noose, placing it around the head and jumping off a deck or chair. It takes time, experience and adult guidance for children to grasp such concepts as severe pain from injuries and the permanence of death.

Preschool children engage primarily in gross-motor (exercise) play, make-believe (symbolic) play, and construction play (Piaget, 1962). Consequently, their playgrounds should be equipped and zoned for such play. There should be storage for portable materials (loose parts), sand and water play equipment and areas, large equipment for gross motor play (sliding, swinging, climbing, balancing, etc.), materials and areas for make-believe play (cars, boats, sand, wheeled vehicles, playhouses, etc.) and materials for construction (sand, water, tools, building blocks, and lumber, etc.). Preschooler's play is further enhanced by including nature areas, gardens and pets in the playground. The social behavior of children closely parallels the quality and richness of their play environments. Barren, boring playgrounds and lack of supportive adults result in children who abuse the environment and one another.

The CPSC Guidelines and the ASTM Standard contain separate recommendations for two- to five-year olds and five- to 12-year olds. If care is given to meet these applicable safety guidelines, older preschoolers and younger kindergarten /primary-age children can share many areas of their playgrounds. This may be particularly beneficial for promoting social development and providing ever-growing challenges for children who are developing rapidly.

The School-Age Child (five to 12). Kindergarten (five years) and primary grades children (six to nine) continue to engage in motor (exercise) play, make-believe play, and construction play, therefore they need materials and equipment to support such play. In addition their maturity levels and interests are leading to a growing interest in organized games (hop scotch, basketball, chase games, rough and tumble, soccer, etc.) so both paved areas (e.g. hop scotch, basketball) and large grassy areas are needed. Most public schools and municipalities focus exclusively on equipment or exercise play and organized games. This is a major oversight, because the child in the primary grades needs continuing play stimulation for cognitive, language and social development as well as motor skill development.

As the school-age child develops from pre-logical to logical thought, play becomes increasingly realistic and structured. The child's growing need for order and structure is accomplished through work/play activities such as construction with tools, art activities and gardening which help to fulfill the child's "need for industry" (Erikson, 1950). Small wonder that the famed European adventure playgrounds, which provide all these opportunities, have been so popular.

Primary-age children and upper-elementary-age children can share exercise equipment (e.g., superstructures, composite units, swings), but the range of child sizes and abilities means that some equipment may be boring for some and hazardous for others. An example of such a hazard is overhead apparatus (e.g., horizontal ladders, ring ladders, track rides), frequently installed at the maximum recommended height (84 inches, ASTM), even when intended to serve the entire five to 12 age range. This height is excessive for most of the younger children, particularly when resilient surfacing is inadequate. Falling from this height (or higher) is perhaps the most frequent cause of playground arm and leg fractures (Frost and Sweeney, 1996). Positioning overhead apparatus for the average (50 percentile) child in the anticipated user group rather than for the taller child (90+ percentile) or providing duplicate play events of differing heights could help reduce these injuries and still allow a wide range of users.

The upper elementary (nine to 12) child's passion for order increases and organized games with rules dominate play, especially for boys. This, of course, signals the need for even more spaces and equipment for varied types of games, such as soccer, basketball, skateboarding, ice and roller blade skating. Although they no longer show intense interest in make-believe play, interest in construction play and work/play activities depends largely on whether storage facilities are available to house a wide array of portable materials to support these forms of play and whether adult play leaders are available. Developmentally appropriate playgrounds do not force children to abandon their natural forms of play for lack of supporting materials and equipment.

As children approach adolescence they are increasingly influenced by peers. Their bodies are changing rapidly, they are acquiring complex logical thought and their interest in the opposite sex is increasing. The spaces and equipment for make-believe play are replaced with places for "hanging out" with friends. These spaces can be equipped to meet the adolescent's need for exercise while supporting the need for establishing identity and becoming an accepted member of a social group. They need challenging equipment, particularly overhead apparatus, for trying out and refining their rapidly growing strength and skills and for influencing peers. Interests are shifting to include video-games, movies and telephone and computer interaction with both friends and strangers. They need organized activities (e.g., sports, clubs) that are directed and supported by sensitive, caring adults to help them to sort out feelings and misconceptions, and to create strong, positive peer relations.

Presently, playground design is heavily influenced by concerns for safety, resulting in the need for renewed emphasis on the importance of play and play environments in children's development. Play is a vehicle for cognitive, social, language, and motor development; it has therapeutic value and is important for transmitting culture. Children learn through play by interaction with objects and socialization with peers, especially with more mature peers, and with supportive adults.

Cultural and political changes--fragmentation of families, increased violence, urbanization, concerns for safety, and increased litigation--are resulting in reduced opportunities for children's free play in creative, challenging environments. Visionary adults can provide reasonably safe playgrounds while maintaining a wide range of creative materials and equipment and promoting learning and development. The common standardized play equipment (composite units, swings, slides, exercise equipment, etc.,) represents minor components or areas of developmentally relevant playgrounds. These may include nature areas, gardens, sand and water, storage for a wide range of loose parts, construction materials, tools, spaces for group and solitary play, wheeled vehicle paths, hills and vegetation and, overall, an environment that can be manipulated and transformed. The common concern that creative playground development is restricted by safety guidelines/standards (ASTM/CPSC) is largely misplaced for the materials listed above are hardly touched by existing standards.

Finally, the playground should support the full range of children's developmental play needs including social (solitary, group) and cognitive play (exercise, construction, make-believe, organized games) and their work/play (construction, art, gardening, etc.). Sensitive, cooperative, skilled playleaders are essential for developing and maintaining good playgrounds and for ensuring that children learn and develop though play.

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