Child abuse reporting by school counselors.A sample of school counselors A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in schools, and have historically been referred to as "guidance counselors" or "educational counselors," although "Professional School Counselor" is now the preferred term. (N = 263) in one Midwestern state completed questionnaires to share their child abuse reporting behaviors, influences with regard to making a decision to report, and perceived barriers to the reporting process. Participants indicated reporting the majority of suspected cases, and elementary school elementary school: see school. counselors reported more cases than did high school counselors. Implications and recommendations are presented. ********** Over 3 million children were reported to child protection agencies in 1997, with close to half of those reports made by mandatory reporters (Kalichman, 1999). In 2000, approximately 879,000 cases of child abuse were substantiated, reflecting a decline in victimization victimization Social medicine The abuse of the disenfranchised–eg, those underage, elderly, ♀, mentally retarded, illegal aliens, or other, by coercing them into illegal activities–eg, drug trade, pornography, prostitution. rates from previous years (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System [NCANDS NCANDS National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System ], 2002). Within any given year, several thousand children are killed or permanently injured in·jure tr.v. in·jured, in·jur·ing, in·jures 1. To cause physical harm to; hurt. 2. To cause damage to; impair. 3. from child abuse while another 20,000 to 50,000 receive substantial injuries, and current estimates project only 40% of child abuse cases are brought to the attention of authorities (Kalichman). As mandatory reporters, school counselors are in a unique position not only to report suspected child abuse but also to consult with staff members regarding their child abuse concerns. Little research exists, however, on the child abuse reporting behaviors of school counselors. Child abuse legislation was first enacted in 1963 (Lawrence-Karski, 1997). Initially, this effort was directed toward physicians (Levine & Doueck, 1995) and only addressed physical abuse (Myers, 1998). The creation of child abuse statutes moved swiftly, with legislation in every state except Hawaii by 1966 (Kalichman, 1999). In 1974, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (Public Law 93-247) provides federal funding to States in support of prevention, assessment, investigation, prosecution, and treatment activities and also provides grants to public agencies and nonprofit organizations for (PL 93-247) was passed by Congress, providing funding for states to expand mandatory reporting mandatory reporting The obligatory reporting of a particular condition to local or state health authorities, as required for communicable disease and substance abuse Infectious disease State boards of health maintain records and collect data resulting from MR of laws. These changes broadened both the scope of reportable abuse and the range of professionals mandated to report (Kalichman). Designed to aid abused and neglected children and requiting that suspected cases of child abuse be brought to the attention of authorities, mandatory reporting statues are currently in place in all 51 U.S. jurisdictions (Kenny, 2001). In broad terms, child abuse is an act of omission omission n. 1) failure to perform an act agreed to, where there is a duty to an individual or the public to act (including omitting to take care) or is required by law. Such an omission may give rise to a lawsuit in the same way as a negligent or improper act. or commission, causing intentional in·ten·tion·al adj. 1. Done deliberately; intended: an intentional slight. See Synonyms at voluntary. 2. Having to do with intention. harm or avoidable endangerment to a child under the age of 18. Four general categories of child abuse include sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, and emotional abuse. Sexual abuse is an act by an adult (or older child in position of power) to use a child for sexual gratification GRATIFICATION. A reward given voluntarily for some service or benefit rendered, without being requested so to do, either expressly or by implication. (Nunnelley & Fields, 1998), whereas physical abuse is described by Horton and Cruise (2001) as "an act of commission by a parent or caretaker, characterized by the infliction in·flic·tion n. 1. The act or process of imposing or meting out something unpleasant. 2. Something, such as punishment, that is inflicted. Noun 1. of physical injury" (p. 2). Neglect is defined as an act of omission, with deficiencies in the obligation of a caretaker resulting in real or possible harm to the child (Akande, 2001). Finally, emotional abuse is verbal abuse verbal abuse Psychology A form of emotional abuse consisting of the use of abusive and demeaning language with a spouse, child, or elder, often by a caregiver or other person in a position of power. See Child abuse, Emotional abuse, Spousal abuse. or mental harm to the child, inflicted by harassment Ask a Lawyer Question Country: United States of America State: Nevada I recently moved to nev.from abut have been going back to ca. every 2 to 3 weeks for med. , threats, or terror, resulting in possible destruction of the child's self-esteem (Nunnelley & Fields). Currently, each state creates its own definitions of abuse as part of its child abuse legislation. Child abuse law does not require reporters to have absolute proof of abuse, only that they have reasonable cause to suspect or believe a child has been abused (Finlayson & Koocher, 1991; Kalichman, 1999; Levine & Doueck, 1995; McClare, 1990). Besharov (1988) described reasonable suspicion Reasonable suspicion is a legal standard in United States law that a person has been, is, or is about to be, engaged in criminal activity based on specific and articulable facts and inferences. as "sufficient, objective evidence for suspecting abuse or neglect" (p. 16). Burden of proof does not lie with the mandatory reporter and there is no obligation to investigate the suspicion further, as that responsibility lies with child protection agencies (McClare). Mandatory reporting law requires that reports be made in good faith, and it provides the reporter with immunity from criminal and civil liability regardless of the substantiation of abuse (Finlayson & Koocher; Hinson & Fossey, 2000; Payne, 1991). This low reporting threshold, found in most legislation, leaves mandatory reporters with no legal basis for claiming discretion in their reporting behavior (Finlayson, 1990). Because failure to report can lead to civil and criminal sanctions Sanctions is the plural of sanction. Depending on context, a sanction can be either a punishment or a permission. The word is a contronym. Sanctions involving countries: Zellman and Antler antler: see horn. (1990) noted that child abuse reports filed by mandatory reporters are much more likely to be substantiated than reports by others in the community. Educators play a pivotal role, by virtue of their long-term, ongoing contact with children, and are among the individuals most likely to identify suspected victims and report their concern to a child protection agency (Abrahams, Casey, & Daro, 1992). Although schools represent the largest single source of abuse reports (NCANDS, 2003), educators report only a fraction of their suspicions (Crenshaw cren·shaw also cran·shaw n. A variety of winter melon (Cucumis melo var. inodorus) having a greenish-yellow rind and sweet, usually salmon-pink flesh. [Origin unknown.] , Crenshaw, & Lichtenberg, 1995). Zellman and Antler suggested that school personnel often feel alienated al·ien·ate tr.v. al·ien·at·ed, al·ien·at·ing, al·ien·ates 1. To cause to become unfriendly or hostile; estrange: alienate a friend; alienate potential supporters by taking extreme positions. from the reporting process, in part because the "legal mandate to report has never been accompanied by clear guidance on what constitutes abuse or reasonable suspicion, nor have reporters been accorded any special status" (p. 30). Such perceptions on the part of educators may contribute to a lower reporting rate, defeating the purpose of legislating leg·is·late v. leg·is·lat·ed, leg·is·lat·ing, leg·is·lates v.intr. To create or pass laws. v.tr. To create or bring about by or as if by legislation. mandated reporting in the first place. In spite of legal mandates, many educators demonstrate a reluctance to report and research shows that noncompliance noncompliance failure of the owner to follow instructions, particularly in administering medication as prescribed; a cause of a less than expected response to treatment. noncompliance is extensive (Finlayson, 1990). Much of the research suggests that mandatory reporters are more likely to report abuse when solid evidence or certainty exists, such as physical markings or bruises Bruises Definition Bruises, or ecchymoses, are a discoloration and tenderness of the skin or mucous membranes due to the leakage of blood from an injured blood vessel into the tissues. Pupura refers to bruising as the result of a disease condition. as a result of physical abuse (Beck & Ogloff, 1995; Crenshaw et al., 1995). Reporting behavior increases again when the evidence implies severity of abuse (Crenshaw et al.). Some reporters want to be certain of abuse before they file a report, whereas others wait for a higher threshold to report for fear their case will be screened out by child protection services (Zellman & Antler, 1990). In addition, Beck and Ogloff found that ambivalence ambivalence (ămbĭv`ələns), coexistence of two opposing drives, desires, feelings, or emotions toward the same person, object, or goal. The ambivalent person may be unaware of either of the opposing wishes. influences decision-making. Many educators, although agreeing to child abuse reporting laws in principle, feel uncertain of their effectiveness in helping a child's situation and actually believe at times that a report may cause more harm than good (Abrahams et al., 1992; Kenny, 2001). Still others question the capability of protective service personnel and their ability to evaluate abuse effectively and protect children responsibly (Finlayson). As mandatory reporters, school counselors must adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. the law while also adhering to established policies of their particular school or district (Remley & Fry, 1993). School counselors arc in a unique situation, often holding a therapeutic relationship with students, and abiding a·bid·ing adj. Lasting for a long time; enduring: an abiding love of music. a·bid  ing·ly adv. by the legal and ethical responsibilities inherently implied. On
the other hand, they arc educators and school employees, and the
policies that school counselors are expected to follow as employees of a
school may conflict with professional, ethical, and legal expectations
also placed upon them.Working closely with students in a therapeutic relationship, school counselors may acquire clinical suspicions clinical suspicion A working hypothesis about a Pt's diagnosis, which is then tested with appropriately targeted tests to arrive at a definitive diagnosis; a CS is based on a constellation of findings in a Pt that suggests to the physician a limited palette of with regard to students. One dilemma for many school counselors involves assessing when a clinical suspicion becomes a reportable suspicion. Legislative definitions are ambiguous, and clinical suspicions may not translate into reportable suspicions. Simply by the nature of their professional training, school counselors, like other clinicians, have a more extensive knowledge of indicators that may support their professional judgment (Finlayson, 1990; Remley & Fry, 1993). Many school counselors and mental health professionals feel that mandatory reporting laws arc in direct conflict with ethical standards of confidentiality (Horton & Cruise, 2001; Levine & Doueck, 1995). Nevertheless, state reporting laws supersede To obliterate, replace, make void, or useless. Supersede means to take the place of, as by reason of superior worth or right. A recently enacted statute that repeals an older law is said to supersede the prior legislation. any obligations of privileged communication privileged communication or confidential communication In law, communication between parties to a confidential relation such that the communication's recipient is exempted from disclosing it as a witness. or confidentiality (Remley & Fry, 1993). In theory, situations such as child abuse reporting are discussed as part of the informed consent process. Counseling a student in a school demands the same requirements of informed consent as those for private practitioners. A student, therefore, should understand in advance any circumstances that would require a breach of confidentiality on the part of the school counselor (Pope & Vasquez, 1991). An honest informed consent process enhances students' autonomy and self-determination, allowing them to choose how, when, and if they wish to disclose sensitive information to their school counselor. PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of child abuse reporting by school counselors and to examine factors affecting their decisions to report abuse. Additionally, this study examined school counselors' perceived barriers to the child abuse reporting process as it currently exists, and their perceptions of their own capabilities in recognizing child abuse. A real need exists to examine the reporting behaviors of school counselors with an emphasis upon the unique elements of their profession. Because the school counselor is often a pivotal influence within his or her school on issues pertaining per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. to child abuse in general and mandatory reporting specifically, it is imperative to seek a better understanding of how the mandatory reporting system is currently working. Previous research has focused on the mandatory reporting decision-making factors for educators in general (Abrahams et al., 1992; Crenshaw et al., 1995; Kenny, 2001; O'Toole, Webster, O'Toole, & Lucal, 1999); however, few studies have examined school counselors as a separate population (see Hackbarth & DeVaney, 1994; Wilson, Thomas, & Schuette, 1983). Additionally, although many existing studies have examined barriers for reporting child abuse for mental health professionals (Finlayson & Koocher, 1991; Kalichman, Craig, & Follingstad, 1990; Weinstein, Levine, Kogan, Harkavy-Friedman, & Miller, 2000), few have studied school counselors as a subgroup sub·group n. 1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group. 2. A subordinate group. 3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group. tr.v. of the mental health profession (see Hackbarth & DeVaney; Wilson et al.). METHOD Participants The research questionnaire was administered during the fall of 2003 to 804 school counselors in a Midwestern state. The sample was limited to one state in order to explore specific questions pertaining to child abuse reporting law. Because each state writes its own mandatory reporting law, and differences exist even in the states contingent to the sample state of this research study, it was essential that the sample be homogeneous The same. Contrast with heterogeneous. homogeneous - (Or "homogenous") Of uniform nature, similar in kind. 1. In the context of distributed systems, middleware makes heterogeneous systems appear as a homogeneous entity. For example see: interoperable network. to explore research questions pertaining to law. Two hundred and sixty-three questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 33%. The majority of the questionnaires were completed by women (77.2%) while men completed 21.7%, and 3 participants chose not to indicate their gender. The participants ranged in age from 26 to 68 years (M = 46.12, SD = 9.18) and were predominantly White (96.2%), with only 1 participant responding as Native American (0.4%) and 1 participant responding as "other" (0.4%). The participants reported a mean tenure as a school counselor of 12.32 years (SD = 8.00), and the majority (90.1%, n = 237) were licensed school counselors while 21 (8.0%) were not. A large percentage (96.6%, n = 254) held a master's degree master's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree. Noun 1. while 8 (3.0%) reported a specialist degree and 2 (0.8%) reported a doctorate. Participants reported that the number of school counselors in their buildings ranged from one to five (M = 1.75, SD = 1.04), and the majority (64.7%, n = 170) reported being the only school counselor in their building. The number of students in the buildings served by participants ranged from 130 to 1,900 (M = 545.97, SD = 320.89). The percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch ranged from 1 to 99 (M = 30.41, SD = 19.32), with 19.0% (n = 50) of participants failing to complete that item on the questionnaire. The largest percentage of respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. reported working at the elementary level (40.3%, n = 106), with 23.2% (n = 61) indicating they were high school counselors. Middle school/junior high counselors made up 19.4% of the sample (n = 51), and the remaining school counselors (15.6%, n = 41) reported working at multiple levels. Four participants did not complete this item. Demographic data on school counselors in this state were not available for comparison. Participants were fairly evenly distributed from across all of the local education agencies within the state; response rates for participants in each of the local education agencies ranged from 19% to 42%. Procedure Each member of the sample received a prenotification e-mall introducing him or her to the research project. Within 1 week of the prenotification e-mail, a one-page cover letter as well as an informed consent and questionnaire were sent via e-mail. Follow-up reminders were sent via e-mail at both 1 and 2 weeks after the initial mailing. Instrument This study employed a questionnaire created and developed by the researchers for use in a larger study on child abuse. A panel of school counselors, counselor educators, and counselor education students reviewed the questionnaire to determine if items clearly represented the topical areas in question; and based on feedback generated by their responses to the items, wording, format, and item choices were modified. Three sections of the questionnaire (School Counselor General Information, Training in Child Abuse Reporting, and Child Abuse Reporting Experience) were used for this study. Part 1, the School Counselor General Information portion of the questionnaire, contained 10 items. With regard to their school, participants were asked to indicate the size of their district, their level of employment, the approximate percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch, and the number of counselors working in their building. They also were asked to indicate their age, gender, and ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic . The remainder of the section asked for the participants' educational degree, licensure licensure (lī´s  nsh status,
and years of experience as a school counselor.Part 2, Training in Child Abuse Reporting, contained two questions. Question 1 asked participants to report how certain they were about their ability to identify the four different types of abuse. Question 2 asked participants where they had acquired their knowledge on child abuse. They were given eight possible choices (e.g., mandatory reporter training at school or discussion with colleague) and were to mark any that applied. Part 3, Child Abuse Reporting Behavior, contained two questions. Question 1 was designed to gather information on reporting prevalence, asking for the number of abuse cases suspected and the number of cases actually reported in the past 12 months. The decisional influences in making a child abuse report, as well as not reporting suspicions of child abuse, have been studied extensively (Abrahams et. al., 1992; Bridgeland & Duane, 1990; Brosig & Kalichman, 1992; Crenshaw et al., 1995; Finlayson & Koocher, 1991; Hinson & Fossey, 2000; Kenny, 2001; McClare, 1990). The framework for this part of the questionnaire, and a similar item in the next question, originated from the review of this literature. Participants were asked to mark reasons for their decision to report from a prepared list of 11 choices or an "Other" response with a place to insert their reason. Question 2 asked participants to indicate how many cases of suspected abuse they did not report. Participants also were asked to check all reasons for their decision not to report from a list of 13 commonly reported barriers found in the literature. The participants also could add other reasons on a blank at the end of the question. A final open-ended question A closed-ended question is a form of question, which normally can be answered with a simple "yes/no" dichotomous question, a specific simple piece of information, or a selection from multiple choices (multiple-choice question), if one excludes such non-answer responses as dodging a asked respondents to share any additional comments they had regarding current mandatory reporting legislation or their personal experiences as mandatory reporters. RESULTS School Counselor Child Abuse Reporting Suspected cases of child abuse ranged from 0 to 50 cases (M = 5.16, SD = 5.65) during the past 12 months. Participants indicated reporting between 0 and 26 (M = 4.22, SD = 4.59) cases in the past year, an average of 77.80% of all suspected child abuse cases. In addition, they reported physical abuse most frequently, with participant responses ranging from 0 to 25 (M = 2.62, SD = 3.03) reports, while neglect was the second most frequent type of child abuse reported (M = 1.13, SD = 2.10). Bivariate bi·var·i·ate adj. Mathematics Having two variables: bivariate binomial distribution. Adj. 1. correlations were calculated to examine relationships between the number of child abuse cases reported or suspected by participants and the following variables: age, gender, years of experience, building level, number of students, and percentage of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch. There was a significant negative relationship between building level (elementary, middle/junior high, high school) and the number of child abuse cases reported by the school counselor in the past year (r = -.31, p = .000), and a significant positive relationship between the percentage of students in a school who qualify for free and reduced lunch (r = .42, p = .000) and the number of child abuse cases reported by the school counselor in the past year. Additionally, a significant negative relationship was found between building level and the number of students receiving free and reduced lunch (r = -.31, p = .003). No other significant relationships were found between the remaining variables and the number of child abuse cases reported in the past year. An analysis of variance (ANOVA anova see analysis of variance. ANOVA Analysis of variance, see there ) was calculated to further examine the relationship between building level and the number of child abuse cases reported. A significant relationship was found [F (2, 203) = 10.843, p = .000], and a Tukey post hoc post hoc adv. & adj. In or of the form of an argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event simply by virtue of having happened earlier: test indicated that with a mean of 5.82 reports, elementary school counselors reported child abuse at a significantly higher level than did high school counselors (M = 2.13). Data also were broken down further to examine differences in reporting based on the percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch. An ANOVA comparing reported cases of child abuse by the participants in schools where 0-24% (n = 81, M = 2.54), 25-49% (n = 91, M = 4.58), and 50-100% (n = 33, M = 8.52) of students received free and reduced lunch was significant [F (2,202) = 21.417, p = .000]. A Tukey post hoc test revealed significant differences in the number of child abuse reports among all three categories. Decisional Influences in Reporting Child Abuse With 251 participants responding, the most frequently marked factor that influenced participants' decisions to report child abuse was following the law (89.4%, n = 235). Other frequently marked factors included strong evidence that abuse had occurred (65.4%, n = 172) and concern for student safety (64.6%, n = 170). See Table 1 for additional factors that influenced participants' decisions to report child abuse. Fewer participants (n = 163) responded to the question asking them to identify factors that influenced their decisions not to report child abuse. Many participants indicated they reported all suspicions of abuse and therefore may not have responded to this question. The most frequent factor marked was a lack of evidence (46.4%, n = 122). In addition, 24.7% (n = 65) of participants indicated as an influencing factor their concern that the Department of Human Services (DHS DHS Department of Homeland Security (USA) DHS Department of Human Services DHS Department of Health Services DHS Demographic and Health Surveys DHS Dirhams (Morocco national currency) ) would not investigate their report. See Table 2 for the remaining reasons provided for not reporting. School Counselors' Ability to Recognize Abuse A one-way ANOVA was calculated, revealing significant differences in participants' certainty to recognize emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, or neglect [F (3, 1021) = 38.898, p = .000]. A Tukey post hoc test indicated that with a mean of 3.37 (SD = 0.70) on a scale ranging from 1 = very uncertain to 4 = very certain, participants felt significantly more confident in their ability to recognize physical abuse than they did to recognize neglect (M = 3.01, SD = 0.71), sexual abuse (M = 2.82, SD = 0.81), or emotional abuse (M = 2.71, SD = 0.76). The Tukey test also revealed that participants felt significantly more confident in their ability to recognize neglect than they did to recognize sexual or emotional abuse. No significant differences were revealed between emotional abuse and sexual abuse. Participant responses for all four types of abuse ranged from 1 to 4. DISCUSSION Typically, the number of child abuse cases reported by educators or mental health professionals has been small (Beck & Ogloff, 1995; Crenshaw et al., 1995; Kenny, 2001). This study found that school counselors reported a mean of approximately four cases of child abuse per year. With the building level and number of students receiving free and reduced lunch taken into consideration, the average number of reports changes; more reports were made by participants in elementary schools and in schools with higher percentages of students receiving free and reduced lunch. Overall, these numbers are greater than numbers reported in previous research for educators in general (Kenny) and school counselors specifically (Wilson et al., 1983). Differences may be due to the fact that school counselors are in a position to suspect more cases simply because of their counseling relationship with children or perhaps because they have more experience actually making reports and interacting with DHS when compared to classroom teachers. Additionally, a great deal of research and education about child abuse has occurred in the past two decades, possibly contributing to differences reported by Wilson et al. and this study. The discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. of suspected cases of child abuse to reported cases of child abuse was less than one case, supporting most previous research suggesting that mandatory reporters report the majority of the cases they suspect (Abrahams et al., 1992). Examination of differences in the suspicion and reporting of child abuse by type (i.e., physical, sexual, neglect, and emotional abuse) has found results suggesting that severity of abuse and actual proof correlate with a stronger reporting record (Beck & Ogloff, 1995; Crenshaw et al., 1995). This current study found school counselors reporting a greater percentage of cases of physical abuse and neglect than of sexual abuse and emotional abuse. These findings suggest that types of abuse with more observable ob·serv·a·ble adj. 1. Possible to observe: observable phenomena; an observable change in demeanor. See Synonyms at noticeable. 2. evidence (physical abuse and neglect) are more likely to be identified and perhaps reported when compared with sexual abuse and emotional abuse, which have few visible symptoms. An area for further study would be examining the types of evidence that mandatory reporters believe support filing a report. Emotional, behavioral, and physical indicators of sexual abuse have existed in the literature for some time. It is unclear how well, if at all, these indicators are being taught to school counselors within their counselor education program or as part of their mandatory reporter training (school counselors in this state are required to complete mandatory reporter training every 2 years). With conservative estimates of childhood sexual abuse averaging approximately one out of every four girls and one out of every seven boys (NCANDS, 2003), it would be expected that participants would encounter more cases of sexual abuse in their schools. Perhaps with better training in recognizing childhood sexual abuse, school counselors would discover and report more cases. Findings would suggest that current education of school counselors with regard to childhood sexual abuse should be expanded. Barriers to reporting, or reasons influencing a decision not to report child abuse, offer insight into the struggles that mandatory reporters face. The main reason provided by participants for deciding not to report was a lack of evidence, followed by concern that DHS would not investigate their report. These results support findings in previous research (Romano, 1990; Wilson & Gettinger, 1989). Because the working relationship between mandatory reporters and DHS is so important to the mandatory reporting process, problems real or imagined can influence how the process is implemented. Future research should examine the relationship between mandatory reporters and child protection workers, with an emphasis on their perceptions of each other, the intent of the law as it was originally conceived, and barriers to the working relationship of these two important entities in mandatory reporting law. Results of this study showed that elementary school counselors reported significantly more child abuse cases when compared to high school counselors. It is very possible that this difference may correlate with the type of work school counselors do at the secondary level, compared to the elementary level. Elementary school counselors may spend more time in direct contact with students in their office, in classrooms, and in less structured school settings. On the other hand, perhaps secondary counselors see fewer students in a counseling setting, spend less time in classrooms, and spend more time scheduling, testing, and attending to other administrative duties. Because child abuse is a difficult thing to disclose, it makes sense that students would be less inclined to turn to school counselors if they don't know Don't know (DK, DKed) "Don't know the trade." A Street expression used whenever one party lacks knowledge of a trade or receives conflicting instructions from the other party. them well or haven't cultivated a strong relationship with them in the past. In addition, older students may be more skilled at hiding abuse, and they may be more astute as·tute adj. Having or showing shrewdness and discernment, especially with respect to one's own concerns. See Synonyms at shrewd. [Latin ast when it comes to procedures that follow a disclosure of abuse. Expectations and job descriptions for school counselors at the secondary level may contribute to difficulties gaining student trust, and comments from secondary school counselors in this study would support this concern. For example, one participant wrote, "The problem with reporting child abuse ... is earning the confidence of the students to tell you what is happening." Another wrote, "Fortunately at the high school level, I have not seen or had a peer report to me during the 2002-2003 school year. In my 12 years in guidance, I probably have only reported between 5 to 10 times." Only 3 high school counselors in this study indicated working in a school with a high percentage of students receiving free and reduced lunch. It is possible that high school counselors serving different student populations would have different experiences. The smaller percentage of child abuse cases reported by secondary counselors warrants further study. This study revealed that in schools with higher percentages of students qualifying for free and reduced lunch, school counselors reported more cases of child abuse. Although it might be purported pur·port·ed adj. Assumed to be such; supposed: the purported author of the story. pur·port ed·ly adv. that
child abuse exists to a higher degree in populations with more poverty
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979Health and Human Services, HHS , 1996), other explanations also must be considered. The significant correlation found in this study also could be due to willingness on the part of school counselors to report child abuse when the family in question is poor and, by some definitions, less empowered. Reporting families from a lower socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. might be less threatening for school counselors; conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , it might be very intimidating in·tim·i·date tr.v. in·tim·i·dat·ed, in·tim·i·dat·ing, in·tim·i·dates 1. To make timid; fill with fear. 2. To coerce or inhibit by or as if by threats. to report child abuse if the family is middle- or upper-class. Such families may hold more influence and power, may be more connected with the school and administration, and may be more willing to threaten the mandatory reporter with regard to his or her employment. Limitations This study obtained a sample from a limited geographic area (i.e., a single Midwestern state). The sample was diverse with regard to age, gender, experience, and level of employment. Additionally the sample was representative of the state, as participants were evenly represented geographically across the state. One demographic worth noting is ethnicity, as this sample was almost entirely Caucasian. Although the authors believe the participants were representative of the school counselors within this particular state, they may not be representative of school counselors in other states. Additionally, the response rate was moderate to low (33%), making it difficult to determine any potential differences that might exist between respondents and nonrespondents. Finally, as with most survey research, results may be skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data due to the bias of social desirability. Because mandatory reporting is a topic embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in moral, emotional, and legal content, participants may have been cautious in how they presented themselves. Implications and Recommendations for School Counselors School counselors have a legal, ethical, and moral responsibility not only to report child abuse, but also to acquire and demonstrate competence as mandatory reporters. In its position statement entitled en·ti·tle tr.v. en·ti·tled, en·ti·tling, en·ti·tles 1. To give a name or title to. 2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: The Professional School Counselor and Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention, the American School Counselor Association (ASCA ASCA American School Counselor Association ASCA Australian Shepherd Club of America ASCA Arab Society of Certified Accountants ASCA American Swimming Coaches Association ASCA American Society of Consulting Arborists ASCA Association of State Correctional Administrators , 2003b) suggests that professional school counselors become well informed about their state's mandatory reporting law and familiar with school policies regarding child abuse reporting. It also advocates for competence in the detection of child abuse as well as recognition that school counselors are an integral component in early intervention ear·ly intervention n. Abbr. EI A process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. . To gain knowledge of state laws, school counselors can conduct research on their own or attend conferences or workshops in their state. They also can work with administrators to encourage the inclusion of child abuse-related topics during school in-service time. Finally, school counselors can work collaboratively with administrators to help establish school mandatory reporting policies that are clear as well as consistent with state mandates and their own professional code of ethics Code of Ethics can refer to:
Some forms of child abuse are particularly difficult to detect. School counselors should become acquainted with the behavioral, physical, and emotional signs for all types of child abuse. Information regarding indicators of child abuse is available in print (see Lambie, 2004) and online via the National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information website (http://nccanch.acf.hhs.gov/ pubs/factsheets/signs.cfm). Professional school counselors are encouraged to obtain a printed copy of these indicators and keep them in their office so they may refer to them as needed as needed prn. See prn order. , as simply committing to memory a list of indicators may not be sufficient to aid in the detection of child abuse. School counselors also might learn more about the use of expressive therapies Expressive therapy, also known as creative arts therapy, is the intentional use of the creative arts as a form of therapy. Unlike traditional art expression, the process of creation is emphasized rather than the final aesthetic product. to aid in the detection of sexual abuse. Children are less verbal than adults, and many find the use of play or art more comfortable avenues for communicating their abuse to others, specifically sexual abuse. Although artwork alone will not provide evidence of sexual abuse (Riordan & Verdel, 1991), it can be used to alert a school counselor that a history of abuse may exist. Likewise, indicators of sexual abuse are discussed in the play therapy literature (Kottman, 2003), and school counselors can benefit from becoming familiar with common indicators of abuse evident through play. Recognizing both the implicit as well as the explicit signs of child abuse will increase the likelihood that more child abuse will be detected and reported. Professional school counselors can take leadership roles within their schools as mandatory reporters. One possible role might be to encourage the formation of a multidisciplinary mul·ti·dis·ci·pli·nar·y adj. Of, relating to, or making use of several disciplines at once: a multidisciplinary approach to teaching. team within the school. ***** School counselors are a primary source of consultation on child abuse issues within their school (Crenshaw et al., 1995). However, each state child abuse reporting law states that mandatory reporting is the responsibility of all educators. Therefore, in order to increase autonomous and responsible reporting, school counselors could encourage a team consultation approach. Such a team might regularly review policies and procedures Policies and Procedures are a set of documents that describe an organization's policies for operation and the procedures necessary to fulfill the policies. They are often initiated because of some external requirement, such as environmental compliance or other governmental or even dispense dispense /dis·pense/ (-pens´) to prepare medicines for and distribute them to their users. dis·pense v. To prepare and give out medicines. new research and information to faculty and staff: This team also might serve as support for reporters within the school, and it might mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. problems as they arise. Finally, school counselors must take the first step in improving the working relationship between mandatory reporters and child protective services child protective services Sociology A state or county agency that addresses issues of child abuse and neglect . School counselors might invite a DHS investigator to a district counselors' meeting and ask him or her to speak on any facet facet /fac·et/ (fas´it) a small plane surface on a hard body, as on a bone. fac·et n. 1. A small smooth area on a bone or other firm structure. 2. of child abuse reporting that merits discussion. Additionally, school counselors can initiate conversations with DHS investigators in order to become better acquainted with the expectations and restrictions placed on those individuals (Weinstein et al., 2000). When school counselors understand the limitations inherent in receiving a report, they might, in turn, be more efficacious ef·fi·ca·cious adj. Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective. [From Latin effic in their reporting of child abuse. Furthermore, demonstrating empathy empathy Ability to imagine oneself in another's place and understand the other's feelings, desires, ideas, and actions. The empathic actor or singer is one who genuinely feels the part he or she is performing. and providing child abuse reports containing factual information and enough details to facilitate their investigation may go a long way in helping school counselors develop effective working relationships with DHS investigators. CONCLUSION Based on the results of this study, it appears that school counselors are reporting most of their suspicions of child abuse. Efforts to help more children are complicated by uncertainty in the recognition of certain types of abuse, specifically abuse with less visible physical indicators. It is imperative that school counselors recognize their obligation to advocate on behalf of all children (ASCA, 2003a) and gain the necessary skills to better assist those most vulnerable and in need of their assistance. References Abrahams, N., Casey, K., & Daro, D. (1992). Teachers' knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about child abuse and its prevention. Child Abuse & Neglect, 16, 229-238. Akande, A. (2001). Child abuse: Focus on a team approach for school teachers and counselors. Child Development and Care, 169, 69-84. American School Counselor Association. (2003a). The ASCA national model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: Author. American School Counselor Association. (2003b). The professional school counselor and child abuse and neglect prevention. Retrieved June 25, 2004, from http://www. schoolcounselor.org/content.cfm?L1=1000&L2=B Beck, K. A., & Ogloff, J. R. P. (1995). Child abuse reporting in British Columbia British Columbia, province (2001 pop. 3,907,738), 366,255 sq mi (948,600 sq km), including 6,976 sq mi (18,068 sq km) of water surface, W Canada. Geography : Psychologists' knowledge of and compliance with the reporting law. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 26, 245-251. Besharov, D. J. (1988). Child abuse and neglect reporting and investigation: Policy guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. for decision making. Washington, DC: American Bar Association American Bar Association (ABA), voluntary organization of lawyers admitted to the bar of any state. Founded (1878) largely through the efforts of the Connecticut Bar Association, it is devoted to improving the administration of justice, seeking uniformity of law . Bridgeland, W. M., & Duane, E. A. (1990). Principals as secondary enforcers in child abuse. Education & Urban Society, 22, 314-324. Brosig, C. L., & Kalichman, S. C. (1992). Clinicians' reporting of suspected child abuse: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 155-168. Crenshaw, W., Crenshaw, L., & Lichtenberg, J. (1995). When educators confront child abuse: An analysis of the decision to report. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 1095-1113. Finlayson, L. M. (1990). Professional judgments related to child abuse reporting laws in child sexual abuse Child sexual abuse is an umbrella term describing criminal and civil offenses in which an adult engages in sexual activity with a minor or exploits a minor for the purpose of sexual gratification. cases. Dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. Abstracts International, 51 (5-B), 2617-2618. Finlayson, L. M., & Koocher, G. P. (1991). Professional judgment and child abuse reporting in sexual abuse cases. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice, 22, 464-472. Hackbarth, S., & DeVaney, S. B. (1994). Reporting suspected sexual abuse: A study of counselor and counselor trainee responses. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 28, 257-263. Hinson, J., & Fossey, R. (2000). Child abuse: What teachers in the '90s know, think, and do. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 5, 251-266. Horton, C., & Cruise, T. K. (2001). Child abuse and neglect. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Guilford Press. Kalichman, S. C. (1999). Mandatory reporting of suspected child abuse ethics ethics, in philosophy, the study and evaluation of human conduct in the light of moral principles. Moral principles may be viewed either as the standard of conduct that individuals have constructed for themselves or as the body of obligations and duties that a , law, and policy (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . Kalichman, S. C., Craig, M. E., & Follingstad, D. R. (1990). Professionals' adherence to mandatory child abuse reporting laws: Effects of responsibility attribution at·tri·bu·tion n. 1. The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art. 2. , confidence ratings, and situational factors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14, 69-77. Kenny, M. C. (2001). Child abuse reporting: Teachers' perceived deterrents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 81-92. Kottman, T. (2003). Partners in play. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association The American Counseling Association (ACA) is a non-profit, professional organization that is dedicated to the counseling profession. ACA is the world's second largest association exclusively representing professional counselors. . Lambie, G. W. (2004, July/August). Breaking the silence. ASCA School Counselor, 27-31. Lawrence-Karski, R. (1997). United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. : California's reporting system. In N. Gilbert (Ed.), Combating child abuse (pp. 9-37). New York: Oxford University Press. Levine, M., & Doueck, H. (1995). The impact of mandated reporting on the therapeutic process. Picking up the pieces. Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA: Sage. McClare, G. (1990).The principal's role in child abuse. Education and Urban Society, 22, 307-313. Myers, J. E. B. (1998). Legal issues in child abuse and neglect practice (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2002). Child maltreatment child maltreatment '…intentional harm or threat of harm to a child by someone acting in the role of a caretaker, for even a short time…Categories Physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect…', the last being most common. 2002: Reports from the states to the national child abuse and neglect data systems. Retrieved June 21, 2004, from http://www.afterschool af·ter·school adj. often after-school 1. Taking place immediately following school classes: afterschool activities. 2. .ed.gov National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2003). Summary of key findings from calendar year 2000. Retrieved February 23, 2003, from http://www.calib.com/ Nunnelly, J. C., & Fields, T. H. (1998). Child abuse: Coping with ethical challenges. The Educational Forum, 63, 44-50. O'Toole, R., Webster, S. W., O'Toole, A. W., & Lucal, B. (1999). Teachers' recognition and reporting of child abuse: A factorial factorial For any whole number, the product of all the counting numbers up to and including itself. It is indicated with an exclamation point: 4! (read “four factorial”) is 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 24. survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 23, 1083-1101. Payne, B. (1991). The principal's role in reporting child abuse. Here's How, 9(6), 2-4. Pope, K. S., & Vasquez, M. J. (1991). Ethics in psychotherapy psychotherapy, treatment of mental and emotional disorders using psychological methods. Psychotherapy, thus, does not include physiological interventions, such as drug therapy or electroconvulsive therapy, although it may be used in combination with such methods. and counseling. San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Jossey-Bass Publishing. Remley, T., & Fry, L. (1993). Reporting suspected child abuse: Conflicting roles for the counselor. The School Counselor, 40, 253-259. Riordan, R. J., & Verdel, A. C. (1991). Evidence of sexual abuse in children's art products. The School Counselor, 39, 116-121. Romano, N. (1990). Schools and child abuse: A national survey of principals' attitudes, beliefs, and practices. Chicago: National Committee for Prevention of Child Abuse. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED321866) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families The Administration for Children and Families (ACF) is a division of the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). It is headed by the Assistant Secretary for Children and Families, which from 2001 to 2007 was Dr. Wade F. Horn. . (1996). The third national incidence study of child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. Weinstein, B., Levine, M., Kogan, N., Harkavy-Friedman, J., & Miller, J. (2000). Mental health professionals' experiences reporting suspected child abuse and maltreatment maltreatment Social medicine Any of a number of types of unreasonable interactions with another adult. See Child maltreatment, Cf Child abuse. . Child Abuse & Neglect, 24, 1317-1328. Wilson, C. A., & Gettinger, M. (1989). Determinants of child-abuse reporting among Wisconsin school The Wisconsin school in economics was based at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and played a prominent role in American economics in the first half of the 20th century. psychologists. Professional School Psychology, 4(2), 91-102. Wilson, J., Thomas, D., & Schuette, L. (1983). Survey of counselors on identifying and reporting cases of child abuse. The School Counselor, 30, 299-305. Wilson, L. S. (1992). The reporting decisions and ethical reasoning of professionals in reporting child abuse. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53 (8-A). (UMI UMI University Microfilms International UMI United States Minor Outlying Islands (ISO Country code) UMI University of Miami UMI Universal Management Infrastructure (IBM) No. 9237913) Zellman, G. L., & Antler, S. (1990). Mandated reporters In many U.S. states, mandated reporters are professionals who, in the ordinary course of their work and because they have regular contact with children, disabled persons, senior citizens, or other identified vulnerable populations, are required to report (or cause a report to be and CPS (1) (Characters Per Second) The measurement of the speed of a serial printer or the speed of a data transfer between hardware devices or over a communications channel. CPS is equivalent to bytes per second. : A study in frustration. Public Welfare, 48, 30-37. Jill Bryant, M.A.E., and Amy Milsom, D.Ed., are with the University of Iowa Not to be confused with Iowa State University. The first faculty offered instruction at the University in March 1855 to students in the Old Mechanics Building, situated where Seashore Hall is now. In September 1855, the student body numbered 124, of which, 41 were women. , Iowa City Iowa City, city (1990 pop. 59,738), seat of Johnson co., E Iowa, on both sides of the Iowa River; founded 1839 as the capital of Iowa Territory, inc. 1853. Among its manufactures are foam rubber, animal feed, paper, and food products. The city is the seat of the Univ. . E-mail: jill-bryant@uiowa.edu
Table 1. Factors Influencing a Decision to Report Child Abuse
n %
Following the law 235 89.4
Strong evidence abuse had occurred 172 65.4
Concern for safety of child 170 64.6
My counseling relationship with the child 157 59.7
Following school policy 139 52.9
Support of my administration 108 41.1
Capabilities/effectiveness of 73 27.8
Department of Human Services
Potential for legal repercussions 67 25.5
My relationship with the family 39 14.8
Other 24 9.1
Possible repercussions at work 18 6.8
Note. n = 251. Participants could indicate more than one factor.
Table 2. Factors Influencing a Decision Not to Report a Suspected
Case of Child Abuse
n %
Didn't think there was enough evidence 122 46.4
Concerned Department of Human Services
wouldn't investigate 65 24.7
Afraid of repercussions for the child 31 11.8
Other 28 10.6
Didn't want to damage therapeutic relationship 12 4.6
Though someone else was reporting 12 4.6
Felt wouldn't be supported by administration 9 3.4
Directed not to report by my principal 9 3.4
Unsure of definitions of abuse 5 1.9
Fear of parental retaliation 5 1.9
Afraid of repercussions for the family 3 1.1
Didn't want to break confidentiality 3 1.1
Fear of legal retaliation 1 0.4
Note. N -1 163. Participants could indicate more than one factor.
|
|
||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion