Characteristics and Competencies of Teachers of Gifted Learners: The Hong Kong Teacher Perspective.

Gifted and talented children have special learning and social-emotional needs, and require a differentiated curriculum with an optimal learning environment. Since teachers have a significant influence on this learning environment, and are critical to the success of gifted programs (Renzulli, 1968), the characteristics, skills, knowledge, and training of teachers who implement gifted programs should be the concerns of all gifted program providers. These concerns are particularly relevant in Hong Kong where the development of programs for gifted and talented students is relatively new (Chan, 1998), and successful programming for the gifted depends on the support of teachers trained to teach gifted learners (Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994).

Past studies on effective teachers have contributed to the understanding and the construction of the ideal profile of the characteristics and competencies of teachers of gifted learners. Qualities of spontaneity, acceptance, creativity, and self-realization have been implicated in promoting the development of human potential (Iannon & Carline, 1971). In addition, high levels of positive regard were directly facilitative of high cognitive functioning in the classroom (Aspy & Roebuck, 1972).

Studies focusing more specifically on the characteristics of teachers of gifted learners have also accumulated (e.g., Bishop, 1968; Whitlock & DuCette, 1989) and been systematically reviewed (Hultgren & Seeley, 1982; Maker, 1975). Feldhusen (1997), for example, observed that the characteristics found in these successful teachers were similar to those found in gifted and talented students, and were desirable in all teachers. These characteristics include: being highly intelligent, achievement oriented, knowledgeable and flexible; having cultural and intellectual interests; respecting individual differences; and relating well with gifted individuals. He further suggested that it was more productive for teacher preparation to focus on competencies, skills and knowledge than on personal traits, as competencies were modifiable teacher behaviors that could become objectives and outcomes of teacher education programs.

In this connection, Feldhusen (1997) also summarized the competencies of successful teachers of gifted learners based on the results of past surveys (e.g., Hultgren & Seeley, 1982; Nelson & Prindle, 1992), and studies on teachers working with gifted and talented students (e.g., Silverman, 1982; Starko & Schack, 1989; Story, 1985). These competencies include skills in teaching thinking skills, problem solving, and creativity; in interacting with students; in using appropriate motivational techniques; in conducting student-directed activities; and in facilitating independent research. However, Feldhusen (1997) cautioned that the competencies needed for teaching certain specific content domains, such as science and mathematics, could be very different from those needed for teaching other domains such as art and music.

Compared with the voluminous findings in Western countries, Chinese literature has little to say about the characteristics or competencies of teachers of gifted learners, although the Chinese valuing of talents, education, and academic achievement has been very much a part of Hong Kong's heritage. Even for teachers in general, the Chinese classic text on education Xue-ji (Handbook of Learning), said to be written by one or more students of Confucius some 2000 years ago, relates only general principles or methods as guidelines for effective teaching (see Kao, 1982; Liu, 1984). The assumption was that a scholar or an expert in a knowledge domain could become a teacher when the scholar or expert was sought by students as a mentor or role model. Becoming a scholar or an expert was a lifelong process of ever-continuing self-improvement and self-development. In a special way, this time-honored conceptualization of scholarship is considered inseparable from the role of an expert teacher, mentor, and master.

In today's Hong Kong, it is recognized that many of the principles and methods alluded to in the ancient Chinese text might apply, but that care must be exercised since a scholar might not necessarily be a good or effective teacher. Becoming one may indeed require that lifelong process of self-improvement and self-development just mentioned. Teacher preparation is seen as necessary for developing a positive learning and teaching environment for students with diverse abilities and special needs in this ever-changing world. Currently, teacher education provided by universities and teachers' colleges in Hong Kong emphasizes pedagogic strategies and techniques associated with teaching specific academic content areas such as mathematics, science, and art. Skills in relating, motivating, and counseling students, in contrast, have been generally underemphasized if not entirely ignored (see Chan, 1992). While teachers have options in acquiring training in special needs education, training is largely confined to teaching the specific populations of students with sensory impairment, mental retardation, and learning disabilities. With the increasing public awareness of the special needs of gifted and talented students, and the rapid development of gifted programming for this specific population, it is anticipated that corresponding changes in teacher preparation and education will be initiated.

The present study was designed to assess the perception of a sample of Hong Kong teachers regarding the characteristics and competencies of successful or effective teachers of gifted learners, and to determine the extent to which practicing teachers endorse and aspire to these characteristics and competencies. Both the perceived importance and the clustering of these characteristics and competencies were explored.

Method

Participants

Fifty teachers (15 men, 33 women, and 2 who did not report their gender)l enrolled part-time in the postgraduate in-service education program at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, participated voluntarily in the study. They were between the ages of 25 and 51 (mean=31.59, SD=6.52; n=44; 6 did not report their age), and had 1 to 30 years of teaching experience (mean=7.89, SD=5.92) in either primary school (n=11) or secondary school (n=34) or both (n-2). (Three teachers did not report whether their teaching experience was with primary or secondary schools). Fifteen teachers (4 primary school teachers and 11 secondary school teachers) reported that they had experience teaching gifted and talented students, 32 reported no experience, and 3 did not respond to this item. All teachers reported that they had no previous training in gifted education.

Measure and Procedure

A checklist of 25 characteristics and 14 competencies of teachers of the gifted were compiled from the list of characteristics and competencies summarized by Feldhusen (1997). All respondents were requested to judge and rate the importance of each of the 25 characteristics and 14 competencies for a good teacher of gifted learners. Ratings were made on a five-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (most important).

Results

Mean Ratings of Teacher Characteristics and Competencies

The responses of the 50 teachers to the 39 items of teacher characteristics and competencies were aggregated and averaged. Table 1 presents separately the mean ratings of the list of characteristics and the list of competencies in descending order of importance. From Table 1, it can be seen that teacher characteristics rated as most important include such characteristics as being imaginative, flexible, stimulating, innovative, facilitative, self-confident, knowledgeable, and considering individual differences. These characteristics are all related to higher order values and ideals that one would like to see in good and effective teachers regardless of whom they teach. Characteristics rated as less important are more related to personal and individual attributes, such as being highly intelligent, less critical, more approachable, cooperative with other personnel, and having control over one's personal life.

Table 1

Ratings on the Importance of Characteristics and Competencies
of Teachers of Gifted Learners (N=50)

Characteristics or Competencies                            Mean    SD

Item Characteristics

11.   Is imaginative, flexible, open to change,
        stimulating                                        4.52   0.68
13.   Recognizes individual differences                    4.36   0.75
12.   Is innovative and experimental, rather than
        conforming                                         4.34   0.77
 7.   Is mature, experienced, self-confident               4.26   0.80
 9.   Facilitates learning; does not direct                4.14   0.78
 4.   Is enthusiastic about talent                         4.12   0.98
 6.   Has broad general knowledge                          4.10   0.81
23.   Seeks new solutions through continued learning       4.08   0.83
 8.   Can see things from students' point of view          4.06   0.93
15.   Respects individuality, personal self-images, and
        personal integrity                                 4.02   0.82
16.   Sees need to develop students' self-concepts         4.02   0.80
22.   Guides rather than coerces                           3.98   0.98
17.   Can communicate the needs of gifted children,
        muster support for the gifted program              3.94   0.87
21.   Can create a warm, safe, democratic environment      3.88   0.92
 2.   Has cultural and intellectual interests              3.86   0.86
 5.   Relates well to talented people                      3.86   1.09
 3.   Strives for excellence, high achievement             3.82   0.85
19.   Can teach students to evaluate for themselves        3.76   0.87
14.   Accepts responsibility for individual children       3.72   0.88
10.   Is well organized, systematic, orderly               3.56   1.05
20.   Aligns more closely with students than a formal
        teacher                                            3.56   0.97
24.   Can work closely with other members of gifted
        staff, students, parents, other professionals      3.52   0.84
 1.   Is highly intelligent                                3.34   0.94
18.   Is less judgmental or critical                       3.18   1.10
25.   Has control over his or her personal life            3.06   1.06

Item Competencies
29.   Is skilled in teaching higher thinking abilities,
        including creativity and problem solving           4.28   0.86
28.   Can develop (or select) methods and materials for
        use with the gifted                                4.06   0.93
26.   Has knowledge of the nature and needs of the
        gifted                                             3.92   0.92
30.   Is adept at questioning techniques                   3.88   0.82
27.   Can identify gifted and talented students            3.88   0.98
39.   Can focus on process as well as product              3.76   0.87
32.   Can direct individualized learning and teaching      3.68   0.82
34.   Is skilled in counseling gifted and talented
        youth                                              3.64   0.83
38.   Can lead young people to successful
        accomplishments                                    3.60   0.83
35.   Is skilled in group processes, teaching groups       3.50   0.99
33.   Can work with culturally different talented youth    3.48   0.97
31.   Is skilled in facilitating independent research      3.46   0.95
36.   Can present career education and professional
        options                                            2.96   0.92
37.   Can conduct in-services for other teachers
        regarding G/T philosophy and methods               2.84   0.98

Note. Ratings were made from 1 to 5. Higher number indicates greater
importance.

Table 1 also shows the mean ratings on teacher competencies or skills deemed to be important for teachers teaching gifted students. In general, lower mean ratings than those obtained for characteristics were observed. The most important skills had to do with teaching or teaching-related activities, such as teaching creativity and problem solving, and developing gifted curriculum and materials. The skills rated as less important were those related to career education and training other teachers for gifted programs.

To explore whether there were any differences in ratings on teacher characteristics and competencies according to gender, school level, and level of experience in teaching gifted students, t-tests were performed. The results, after adjusting the significance level because of multiple t-tests, indicated that there were no significant differences in any of these variables.

Dimensions of Teacher Characteristics and Competencies

To explore whether certain characteristics and competencies were perceived to go together, exploratory factor analyses were performed separately on the importance ratings on teacher characteristics and teacher competencies. Specifically, the 25-item correlation matrix of teacher characteristics, and the 14-item correlation matrix of teacher competencies were each subjected to separate maximum likelihood factor analyses.

Regarding the analysis of the data of teacher characteristics, an initial estimate yielded seven factors with eigenvalues greater than unity, accounting for 73% of the total variance. Accordingly, one to seven factor solutions were estimated, and their corresponding chi-square values as indices for the lack of fit were computed. The results indicated that an adequate representation of the data of teacher characteristics, one that yields a non-significant chi-square, would be the three-factor solution ([chi square]=273.07, df=228, p [is less than] .022), or the four-factor solution ([chi square]=234.90, df=206, p [is less than] .082), accounting for 48% and 52% or the total variance, respectively.

Regarding the analysis of the data of teacher competencies, an initial estimate yielded three factors with eigenvalues greater than unity, accounting for 65% of the total variance. Consequently, one to three factor solutions were estimated, and their corresponding chi-square values were computed. Based on the results of a non-significant chi-square for the two-factor solution ([chi square]=82.55, df:=64, p [is less than] .059), which accounted for 52% of the total variance, the two-factor solution could be regarded as an adequate representation of the teacher competencies data.

To ensure adequate representation of the data, each of the seven factor solutions of teacher characteristics and each of the three factor solutions of teacher competencies were rotated using the varimax procedure and carefully examined for simple structure and interpretability. The three-factor solution of teacher characteristics and the two-factor solution of teacher competencies were each found to yield dimensions that were most readily interpretable and meaningful. The two separate varimax-rotated factor solutions of teacher characteristics and teacher competencies of gifted learners are summarized in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2

Varimax Rotated Three-Factor Solution of Perceived Important
Characteristics of Teachers of Gifted Learners (N=50)

Item Characteristics                                    1    2    3

10.   Is well organized, systematic, orderly            74   --   --
 4.   Is enthusiastic about talent                      72   --   --
22.   Guides rather than coerces                        66   --   --
 5.   Relates well to talented people                   66   --   --
23.   Seeks new solutions through continued learning    61   --   44
 7.   Is mature, experienced, self-confident            60   --   --
20.   Aligns more closely with students than a formal
        teacher                                         58   --   --
24.   Can work closely with other members of gifted
        staff, students, parents, other professionals   56   --   --
15.   Respects individuality, personal self-images,
        and personal integrity                          --   81   --
21.   Can create a warm, safe, democratic environment   --   64   --
14.   Accepts responsibility for individual children    41   61   --
 8.   Can see things from students' point of view       --   60   --
11.   Is imaginative, flexible, open to change,
       stimulating                                      --   57   --
13.   Recognizes individual differences                 --   56   --
16.   Sees need to develop students' self-concepts      --   53   --
17.   Can communicate the needs of gifted children,
        muster support for the gifted program           --   49   --
 2.   Has cultural and intellectual interests           --   --   88
 1.   Is highly intelligent                             --   --   63
 6.   Has broad general knowledge                       --   --   62
 3.   Strives for excellence, high achievement          --   --   52
25.   Has control over his or her personal life         --   --   44
12.   Is innovative and experimental, rather than
        conforming                                      --   --   42
18.   Is less judgmental or critical                    --   --   40

Note. Only salient loadings of magnitude .40 or above are shown. Item 9
("Facilitates learning; does not direct") and Item 19 ("Can teach
students to evaluate for themselves") had no salient loadings and are
not shown. Decimals are omitted.
Table 3

Varimax Rotated Two-Factor Solution of Perceived Important Competencies
of Teachers of Gifted Learners (N=50)

Item Competencies                                             1    2

37.   Can conduct in-services for other teachers regarding
        G/T philosophy and methods                            92   --
35.   Is skilled in group processes, teaching groups          75   --
36.   Can present career education and professional options   74   --
38.   Can lead young people to successful accomplishments     60   --
34.   Is skilled in counseling gifted and talented youth      56   --
33.   Can work with culturally different talented youth       55   43
39.   Can focus on process as well as product                 52   --
31.   Is skilled in facilitating independent research         43   --
29.   Is skilled in teaching higher thinking abilities,
        including creativity and problem solving              --   71
26.   Has knowledge of the nature and needs of the gifted     --   69
27.   Can identify gifted and talented students               --   69
30.   Is adept at questioning techniques                      --   69
28.   Can develop (or select) methods and materials for
        use with the gifted                                   --   69
32.   Can direct individualized learning and teaching         --   59

Note. Only salient loadings of magnitude .40 or above are shown.
Decimals are omitted.

Table 2 presents the three-factor solution of teacher characteristics. Factor 1 was defined saliently by heterogeneous characteristics related to organization, enthusiasm, accessibility, cooperativeness, facilitation, and guidance. This dimension could be interpreted as one representing professional predispositions or management qualifies desirable in the teaching profession.

Factor 2 was loaded saliently by characteristics reflecting educational values and ideals. These characteristics included respect, responsibility, flexibility, empathy, and the consideration of individual differences. This was a dimension reflecting philosophical ideals and a commitment to individual differences.

Factor 3 captured some of the more personal attributes deemed to be important for teachers of the gifted and talented. They included having cultural and intellectual interests, being innovative, highly intelligent, knowledgeable and achieving. This was a dimension of personal attributes.

Table 3 also presents the two-factor solution of teacher skills or competencies. Factor 1 included global skills or competencies related to general principles in philosophy and methods, group processes, career education, process orientation, research, and multicultural considerations. This was a dimension describing global competencies.

Factor 2 represented skills that were more specifically related to teaching or behaviors associated with teaching. These skills included those related to teaching creativity and problem solving, identification, questioning, and meeting the needs of the gifted. This was a dimension interpretable as representing specific skills or teaching-related competencies.

Developing Scales of Perceived Characteristics and Competencies of Teachers of Gifted Learners

Based on the results of factor analyses, it was possible to construct scales of perceived teacher characteristics and competencies by assembling the items with salient loadings on the relevant factors. To keep these scales relatively independent of each other, and to maintain the same number of items in each scale of characteristics or competencies, items with salient cross-loadings and least salient loadings were omitted in the item composition of the scales. Table 4 summarizes the mean scores on three scales of teacher characteristics and two scales of teacher competencies and their internal consistency measures of coefficient alpha. It can be seen that teachers rated in descending order of importance, philosophical ideals, professional dispositions, and personal attributes as reflected in the three scale scores of characteristics, and specific skills and global strategies as reflected in the two scale scores of competencies. Separate multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) using the three scales of characteristics as dependent variables, and two scales of competencies as dependent variables revealed no significant effects of gender, school level, and level of experience in teaching gifted students.

Table 4

Mean Scores and Internal Consistencies of Scales
of Perceived Characteristics and Competencies of
Teachers of Gifted Learners (N=50)

[Scale.sup.Coefficient]         Number           Standard
                               of Items   Mean   Deviation   Alpha

Characteristics
Philosophical Ideals               7      4.11     0.59       .84
Professional Predispositions       7      3.84     0.72       .87
Personal Attributes                7      3.67     0.60       .78

Competencies
Specific Skills                    6      3.95     0.69       .87
Global Strategies                  6      3.38     0.71       .87

Note. Scale composition is based on results of factor analysis:
Philosophical ideals (Items 8,11,13,15,16,17,21 ); Professional
predispositions (Items 4,5,7,10,20,22,24); Personal attributes
(Items 1,2,3,6,12,18,25); Specific skills (Items 26,27,28,29,30,32);
Global strategies (Items 31,34,35,36,37,38).

Discussion

This study extends the findings of the characteristics and competencies of teachers of gifted learners in Western countries into the Chinese cultural setting. Hong Kong teachers by and large endorsed the importance of the list of characteristics and competencies of teachers of gifted learners. Characteristics related to high order educational ideals were rated more important than characteristics related to personal attributes; specific teaching skills targeted to meet the needs of gifted learners were also rated more important than more global strategies. The order of importance was supported by the results of factor analyses and the scores of the five newly developed scales of characteristics and competencies. The classification of characteristics into philosophical, professional, and personal characteristics are reminiscent of the classification of Maker (1972), and the five scales of characteristics and competencies give new meanings and reinforce some of the time-honored Confucian thinking of a good and effective teacher.

The emphasis of Confucian thinking, as recorded in the classic text of education Xue-ji, on the philosophy, beliefs, and attitudes of effective teachers was reflected in the greater importance Hong Kong teachers in this study placed on the philosophical and professional characteristics than personal attributes. According to Xue-ji, a scholar could become a teacher only if he or she understood the factors contributing to the success and failure of teaching (Kao, 1982; Liu, 1984). Successful teaching came from adhering to the four principles of Yu (anticipating), Shi (timing), Sun (sequencing), and Mo (discussing and processing). Sun Yu-Shi emphasizes learning readiness and pacing, and Mo emphasizes the creating of a relaxed learning environment in which teacher and students interact in teaching and learning. In this learning environment, teachers had to recognize individual differences in abilities and interests, and teach to meet the specific needs of individual students. Thus, it is said in Xue-ji that a teacher should teach using analogies and metaphors, for in this manner a teacher inspires or enlighten students through multiple channels to meet the needs of students of diverse abilities and learning styles. In addition, through the use of examples and metaphors, a good teacher guides but does not direct, encourages but does not coerce, facilitates but does not impose conclusion thus insuring a learning environment that is conducive to harmonious relationship (He), relaxed learning (Yi), and independent thinking (Si). Further, effective teachers, according to Xue-ji, should be able to interpret complex concepts in simple to-the-point explanations, explain in details but within a broadened context, and enhance understanding with the choice of the best metaphors.

While the Chinese principles of Yuhi-Sun-Mo, and He-Yi-Si are by and large consistent with Western thinking of the characteristics of effective teachers, the Chinese literature says little about teacher skills and competencies. The exception in Xue-ji is about the techniques of responding to student questioning in the analogy between questioning-responding and the act of tolling a bell. Students who pose questions are compared with bell-ringers. The different degrees of forcefulness in the act of tolling represent the different levels of the students' questions to which the effective teacher responds accordingly. Light stroking and forceful tolling elicit different chimes from the effective teacher who considers the student's different levels of understanding and receptivity. Nonetheless, the effective teacher always puts the students at ease for the reverberating chimes to take effect even long after the act of tolling. Although an effective teacher may be able to bring abstract principles to bear on the practicalities of teaching with flexibility and creative options, Hong Kong teachers generally appreciate acquiring skills and strategies that are more carefully spelled out. Thus, an integration of Chinese and Western thinking on effective teaching may enrich teacher preparation programs and appeal to Chinese teachers.

Since teachers who receive training in gifted education are more effective teachers of gifted learners than untrained teachers (Hansen & Feldhusen, 1994), teacher preparation programs need to focus on training effective teachers of gifted learners. While administrators of gifted programs might select teachers based on the list of important characteristics, the Chinese literature reviewed suggests that the development of philosophical ideals, professional predispositions, and personal attributes conducive to effective teaching should not be neglected in teacher selection and teacher preparation programs. Specific skills and competencies directed specifically to identify, teach, and counsel gifted and talented students are additional priorities. The Chinese way of teaching by metaphors, which promotes self-regulated and autonomous learning, offers creative options that can be integrated with Western pedagogy in teacher preparation. However, as Feldhusen (1997) has cautioned, the required competencies might differ for specific content domains and specific gifted subpopulations. Thus, desirable competencies of teachers of gifted learners should cover effective approaches to different types of gifted and talented children (e.g., disadvantaged, underachieving, creative), as few programs are so specialized for specific subgroups, and different subgroups are generally represented in most programs. However, there are exceptions such as meeting the specific needs of gifted and talented students in the area of visual and performing arts. In this connection, teachers should not only be aware of the needs of individual students, but also their capabilities to meet those needs (Dubner, 1980).

The perceived importance of the list of competencies in this study provided guidelines for specifying goals, objectives, and outcomes for teacher preparation especially in this Hong Kong Chinese setting. The list of competencies should be made part of each trained teacher's repertoires, available for use, depending on the specific population involved, the content domain, and the settings and situations in which the teacher finds himself or herself. In addition, the scales of perceived characteristics and competencies of teachers of gifted learners developed in this study provide a foundation for future scale refinements and further development of reliable and valid assessment instruments for teacher selection and monitoring of teacher training. Further, the present findings and the Confucian wisdom as expressed in Xue-ji some 2000 years ago remind educators and teachers that becoming effective teachers for gifted learners and for all students require appropriate training. The principles and methods introduced in the ancient text of Xue-ji hold promise for contemporary teachers, and might inspire them to look at the act of learning and teaching from a different perspective and to reinvigorate their teaching with a new sense of excitement and possibility. Thus, the results of the present study, integrating Chinese thinking with Western empirically supported evidence, have great implications for the design and development of teacher preparation programs that offer training to help transform teachers to become effective teachers of gifted learners in Hong Kong as well as in settings that extend far beyond the Hong Kong Chinese context.

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David W. Chan is Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin.

Manuscript submitted May, 2000.

Revision accepted November, 2000.