Career techniques and interventions: themes from an international conversation.

The need for appropriate, timely, and increasingly comprehensive career development and education programs continues to escalate. It is interesting that despite the differences in cultures, religions, economies, political systems, and education structures, many countries face similar challenges when designing and implementing career development programs. Sharing and adapting career development interventions and techniques cross-culturally appear to be viable strategies for implementing or enhancing programs, provided the concepts and materials are tailored to the countries' unique requirements.

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Across the world, a large number of career development and education interventions have received wide recognition and been adapted for use by a number of countries. According to research and anecdotal data, many of the adaptation results have proven effective. Others, however, have fallen short of their intended outcomes, apparently because of a variety of factors; however, interest in adapting theories, programs, and materials for use beyond the environments for which they were designed remains high.

Consequently, part of the symposium International Perspectives on Career Development was dedicated to understanding, on a deeper level, the factors that influence cross-cultural and cross-national intervention adaptations. Group 3, one of seven small groups charged with specific symposium tasks, explored issues around career development techniques and interventions. Encouraging input from international specialists in the field of career development, this cross-cultural, cross-national group focused on the following questions:

* Can career intervention techniques be used cross-culturally?

* What are the considerations in applying career intervention techniques cross-culturally?

* What are the difficulties in adapting career intervention techniques for cross-cultural use?

This article is a synopsis of Group 3's findings. Using the key points of each of the presented papers and ensuing group discussions, we examine the three questions that guided Group 3, identify common themes and findings, and present the group's conclusions. The article ends with suggestions for further discussion and research.

Question 1: Can Career Intervention Techniques Be Used Cross-Culturally?

Evidence supports the contention that several career intervention techniques are being used cross-culturally. In fact, it appears that many countries share similar types of relatively sophisticated career development and planning programs. In his paper, George Richard (2004) reviewed international literature for exemplary career planning programs and, in the process, found several commonalities across countries. Using meta-analyses conducted in multiple countries, he noted five specific intervention components that significantly contributed to effect-size variability:

* Written exercises such as keeping journals, diaries and logs; and using workbooks

* Direct, individually focused interpretations of self-appraisal information, career planning activities, and decision-making strategies

* Practical, up-to-date career and occupational information

* Modeling and exposing clients to individuals who have attained success in career decision-making, and who demonstrate the process of career exploration, decision making, and implementation

* Helping clients build networks of people (including family members and others in the client's social network) who are supportive and facilitative of their career choices and plans, and help reduce the effects of perceived barriers and environmental influences (p. 2)

Richard (2004) categorized his multinational, cross-cultural findings into three main areas--(a) content, (b) process and method of delivery, and (c) infrastructure of career planning and development programs--and noted their combined importance in successful client outcomes.

* Content: Content elements focus on clients achieving important career development competencies, such as self-appraisal, self-management, and employability skills. Content also includes up-to-date career and occupational programs to give clients the knowledge, skills, and abilities to make effective career decisions. Content includes tools and techniques that increase self-knowledge of values, interests, personality, and skills; promote the ability to collect and synthesize information about the world of work and educational requirements; and enhance decision-making and planning skills.

* Process: Exemplary career development programs include direct, individually focused interpretations of self-appraisal information, career-planning activities, and decision-making strategies. Modeling and exposing clients to individuals who have attained success in career decision making and who are successfully engaged in their work and lives are important components of successful career development.

* Infrastructure: Infrastructure refers to leadership, staffing, facilities, and other institutional resources that support the implementation of career planning services.

In his paper, John Dagley (2004) noted that various national and international organizations have endorsed career group work. His examples included a long-running group counseling program for Canadian adolescents, which is focused on teaching a wide range of life skills, and a French program offering small group work and other "psycho-pedagogical guidance methods" (p. 5) directed toward adolescents' discovery of occupational activities and plans. Other group activities used cross-culturally and cross-nationally are cognitive restructuring to improve decision making (Italy), assertiveness training groups (Taiwan), groups for the undecided and indecisive (Italy), career readiness groups, job hunting and job preparation groups, and life skills groups.

In her paper, Claire Smith-Victor (2004) described her experiences at Dubai Women's College (DWC), which illustrated the international commonalities in comprehensive career development programs and the success of adapting specific interventions for cross-cultural use. One of 12 colleges in six Emirates, the DWC is charged with preparing and developing United Arab Emirates nationals to meet the rapidly changing demands of the labor market; fulfill employers' expectations; and emiratize (i.e., nationalize jobs that are in the semiprivate and private sector) industries). DWC's central task is to develop students who are "job ready" and who possess the linguistic ability, technical skills, intellectual capacity, and leadership potential to contribute to the continued development of the United Arab Emirates. The DWC's curriculum was developed in collaboration with industry advisory committees. Highly qualified teachers were recruited, and technology was comprehensively integrated into a student-centered learning process. It is hoped that the outcomes for DWC graduates will be the ability to think critically, to learn, to engage in interdisciplinary exploration and lifelong learning, to self-manage, to have communication and information literacy, to be competent with information technology, to have vocational competencies, to exhibit teamwork and leadership, and to be globally aware.

In addition to those career planning and exploration techniques developed in-house (e.g., interest inventories, collage building, and multiple workshops), Smith-Victor (2004) noted two specific interventions that were adapted successfully from other countries: the decision deck (values and skills) card sort from Alberta, Canada, and an interests, values, skills, and abilities inventory called "Who Am I?" adapted from the Toronto Board of Education. DWC's achievements are due, in part, to the many career interventions and techniques that have been adapted from many countries.

Question 1: Conclusions

Both the literature cited in the symposium's papers and group discussions found that many of the same career intervention techniques are used successfully cross-culturally. Generally, techniques labeled as best practices are those that combine activities into comprehensive career planning and development programs. Self-knowledge and career exploration; interactive, diverse, and integrated methods of delivery; and a supportive environment are primary components universal to programs that lead to sound career decision making. Furthermore, adapting materials and techniques for cross-cultural use will undoubtedly increase as the international community places greater importance on career guidance, planning, and development services.

Question 2: What Are Some Considerations in Applying Career Intervention Techniques Cross-Culturally?

Both the literature and group discussions illustrated that many countries are experiencing similar issues when applying career development techniques. In an examination of international cross-cultural approaches to career development, countries differed markedly in their social and cultural responses to career development (Richard, 2004). Differences are seen along four major dimensions: individualism--collectivism, power--distance, uncertainty--avoidance, and masculinity--femininity. The most frequently studied and relevant dimension for career development is individualism--collectivism, and research in this area has shed light on the effects of cultural values and practices on individuals' concept of career choice success and the dangers of stereotyping social class and cultural differences.

Another study (Sampson, Watts, Palmer, & Hughes, 2000) reported the outcomes of translating a specific career planning approach to use in another country. The cognitive information processing approach, developed at Florida State University, was adapted for use by the United Kingdom. Although the project was successful, a number of considerations were noted when this type of activity is attempted. These considerations include (a) a comprehensive understanding of the contextual factors in the setting in which the intervention will be applied, (b) any adaptations that require collaboration with the users to be successful, and (c) the need for implementers to have realistic expectations about the process of theory adaptation.

Rapidly evolving economic globalization appears to be having a profound effect on how to develop, use, and adapt career development and planning interventions. The global economy is creating additional complexities in career development, as well as giving birth to new career- and life-management dimensions. In her paper, Roberta Neault (2004) spoke about the implications for individuals seeking "global careers." Responsible for implementing programs to serve those looking for project-based work in multinational corporations, Neault has found that the challenges faced by global careerists are organized into chronological stages: preparing to work abroad, finding work, settling in, ongoing career and life management, and repatriation. Moreover, she discovered that both immigrants and expatriates reported similar challenges in each of these stages.

In the first stage, preparing to work abroad, she found that individual motivation influenced outcomes. People seeking work abroad for positive reasons, such as enhancing careers or finding better lives for their families, typically approach these moves optimistically and realistically. Finding work in a global economy, the second stage, also presents multiple challenges. Establishing employment networks has grown complex; finding global employment now means forming worldwide rather than local connections. Often, once in a global career, job realities fall short of expectations. Moreover, expatriates who were in esteemed careers in their native countries may need to start from scratch in their global careers because of differing international qualifications and standards. Settling into a new country and culture, the next stage, is equally daunting. Living abroad means negotiating logistics of an international move with its frequent unexpected pitfalls, culture shock, and language limitations. Personal and family safety concerns, as well as financial risks, abound because of the increase in world instability. Managing a global career now means fostering global relationships, remaining patient and persistent, acquiring local language skills and cultural sensitivity, and migrating to where the work is. In addition, work--life balance is often more taxing because friendships and support systems can be difficult to establish. Returning home, repatriation, is often difficult. Repatriates confront changes in the cost of living, lack of employment opportunities, cultural differences, lifestyle changes, and so on.

Focusing on both the contextual and the personal dimensions to be considered in adopting and adapting interventions, Nota, Soresi, Solberg, and Ferrari (2004) reported their findings regarding an intervention program "Choice for the Future: No Problem!" used with Italian middle school students. Despite the fact that 40% of middle school students are indecisive or unmotivated to articulate career goals, in Italy, future career opportunities are determined at the middle school level by placing students into either a vocational high school or one that prepares students to go on to university. Assuming that career decision making is associated with self-agency characteristics such as assertiveness, locus of control, and self-efficacy, Nota et al. initially evaluated the program's ability to improve career decision making in middle school. This initial evaluative study did find that students' self-agency characteristics were improved through their participation in the program.

Nota et al. (2004) built on this first evaluation by next assessing the ability and influence of teachers who delivered the program. They found that teachers were able to learn and deliver the program effectively and that students were encouraged to make more effective career decisions. Through these results, they hope to foster an increased number of comprehensive career development interventions throughout Italian schools.

Huiling Peng (2004) underscored the contextual and personal dimensions of career development challenges in her study. Focusing on those university and college students returning to Taiwan after studying overseas, Peng hoped to determine their career education needs. She found that most of the students returned with high levels of indecision and anxiety. She concluded that all universities and colleges that enroll Chinese students need to furnish them with current academic-related information and career education programs. In addition, cultural diversity courses should be offered in both Taiwan and in overseas colleges and universities. Finally, higher education in Taiwan should pay more attention to these students' career education needs, which should be an integral and an interactive part of higher education.

Question 2: Conclusions

A number of considerations were identified that should be considered when adapting a career intervention for use in countries other than that for which the intervention was designed.

* Cultural differences: Values and belief systems are unique to cultures.

* Societal expectations: Male and female roles and workplace management structures differ from country to country.

* Key decision-making points: Educational systems vary across the world in the timing of career decisions (e.g., European countries determine college-preparation or vocational tracks in middle school).

* Changing economic forces: Globalization of economies, unemployment, and political unrest contribute to where work can be found and who can access it successfully.

* Personal characteristics: The characteristics include those attributes of the individuals making career decisions. Degree of self-agency, individual motivation, and individual expectations are some characteristics contributing to career development outcomes.

* Levels of governmental and institutional support: Adequate resources and leadership support are critical to the success of interventions.

* Implementation methods: These methods include the various ways that the interventions are adapted and implemented; different delivery methods influence outcomes.

* Adapting interventions: Finally, establishing realistic expectations and collaborating with the key players and decision makers throughout implementation are fundamental to accomplishment.

Question 3: What Are Some of the Difficulties in Adapting Intervention Techniques for Cross-Cultural Use?

Question 3 followed directly from Question 2, in that it encouraged specifying some of the difficulties that would likely be encountered when adapting intervention techniques cross-culturally. The difficulties illuminated in the papers and discussions can be categorized into three main areas--sociopolitical and economic, individual, and cultural.

Sociopolitical and Economic Difficulties

In his paper, Richard (2004) highlighted a 2003 review of career guidance policies in 36 countries that had been conducted independently by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, the European Commission, and the World Bank. Working concomitantly, these groups found differences among countries in the provision of career guidance services that reflected economic, political, social, cultural, educational, and labor market contexts. The level of economic development was found to have a significant impact on the existence of career services. Career guidance was not as important in low- and middle-income countries as it was in high-income countries. This is likely due to the lack of public resources, a more restricted range of career choices, and more preoccupation with economic survival than development and growth in the low-income countries. Moreover, the magnitude and chaotic nature of the politics embedded in these countries' problems makes their resolution seemingly insurmountable. The timeliness and appropriateness of any career development interventions should be carefully considered in such developing countries.

Individual Characteristics

In studies conducted in Italy (Nota et al., 2004) and Taiwan (Peng, 2004), the difficulties in working with students with underdeveloped self-efficacy were noted. When personal agency, or the degree to which one feels in control of one's life course and believes that one is able to manage challenges in ways that will result in desired outcomes, is not strong, career interventions will have limited impact. Youths who report low self-agency have little confidence in managing academic and social tasks and are more likely to engage in avoidance behaviors; suffer from depression, stress, and anxiety; do poorly in school; and develop behavior problems. Because making a career-related decision is an act of self-determination that involves choosing among alternative life courses, decisions are also affected by the level of confidence one has about performing school- and occupation-related tasks, as well as the degree to which one finds school or possible occupations meaningful and enjoyable.

According to Peng (2004), the returning Chinese university and college students were found to have high levels of anxiety and indecision about their career choices. If their anxiety and indecisiveness are not addressed, these students are likely to remain immobilized in their career pursuits or end up in jobs with little personal relevance or meaning.

A side effect reported in the Nota et al. (2004) study concerned the variability of the individuals who administer or facilitate a career development intervention. They noted that variation in the expertise of the individual conducting interventions was associated with the largest percentage of variance in treatment effectiveness. Finding consistent competence in those individuals responsible for implementing and delivering career development interventions appears to be a challenge. Yet, because of its dramatic impact on the success of participants, providing additional training is a challenge worthy of being addressed.

Cultural Difficulties

In her paper, Smith-Victor (2004) reported the challenge of finding tools that overcome cultural barriers. The DWC students were unfamiliar with some of the work activities displayed in pictures and written descriptions of interventions purchased from other countries. To compensate, DWC teachers facilitated small group sessions that included explaining concepts by using references to local people, institutions, situations, and so on. When adapting the Toronto Board of Education's "Who Am I?" (an interests, values, skills, and abilities inventory), DWC initially piloted the instrument. The pilot test revealed the need to reword six sentences, which was subsequently accomplished without changing the meaning or purpose of the inventory. The DWC also removed any reference to jobs that were not culturally relevant (e.g., finance or banking and tourism). To ensure that all career interventions were sensitive to both culture and religion, early DWC materials were adapted in Arabic; however, this did not prevent students from choosing a major or career without consulting their male relatives, and because some careers are deemed inappropriate for women because of cultural or religious concerns, the support of male relatives is critical for women pursuing and attaining careers. In short, Smith-Victor noted that the DWC's major challenges were the language barriers between the products and students and students choosing a major not supported by male family members.

In his paper, Dagley (2004) noted culturally based issues and concerns specifically related to group work. He encouraged special attention to the unique needs of what he termed the "special populations of college students." Encompassing African American, women, and international students, these special populations need small groups explicitly targeting their distinctive career development and planning requirements.

Question 3: Conclusions

Several difficulties in adapting career interventions for cross-cultural use were illuminated in both papers and discussion groups. Some of the sociopolitical and economic issues of the developing countries, such as scarce resources and lack of perceived need for career development programs, are beyond the control of career development practitioners. On one hand, to a certain extent, the individual characteristics of students and clients present challenges that are not easily addressed by even the most seasoned career development professionals. On the other hand, cultural barriers, such as language and religious ideologies, can be overcome by heightening cultural sensitivity, mastering languages, and collaborating with participants from the country adopting the intervention.

Emergent Themes

In addition to addressing the specific questions directed to it, Group 3's papers and discussion groups revealed career development and planning themes that appear to be surfacing cross-nationally. The first theme reflects the growing international interest in career development and planning programs. Reviews of national career guidance policies in 36 countries indicated that "career guidance is higher on the public agenda than ever before" (Richard, 2004, p. 4). The second theme reflects both a respect for and a sense of caution about the use of technology throughout the world as a source of what Tom Harrington (2004) called "do-it-yourself" counseling, especially in light of what he termed an "overselling by encouraging people to attend college" (Harrington, 2004, p. 1). The need to maximize technology's potential to serve an ever-expanding set of career development needs must also appreciate that "69.5% of employed workers [in the United States] are projected to require work-related training" (Harrington, 2004, p. 1). The third theme reflects burgeoning awareness worldwide that career development is no longer just about "getting a job." In fact, it is more about learning how to live a life in which a career is only one aspect. This holistic career development approach was repeated throughout the papers and discussions. The following examples provide greater detail about the nature of comprehensive career development.

Blueprint for Life/Work Designs

Phillip Jarvis (2004) spoke about a Canadian program, Blueprint for Life/Work Designs, based on the concept that career development is a lifelong process. Its primary purpose is to equip young people with the ability to negotiate all of life's challenges by concentrating on what are termed the "high-five" principles:

1. Know yourself, believe in yourself, and follow your heart.

2. Focus on the journey, not the destination. Become a good traveler.

3. You are not alone. Access your allies, and be a good ally.

4. Change is constant and brings with it new opportunities.

5. Learning is lifelong. People are inquisitive by nature and are most alive when they are learning.

Within this program, there are three main areas that include age-appropriate competencies: personal management (e.g., maintaining a positive self-image, interacting positively and effectively with others, and changing and growing throughout one's life), learning and work experience (e.g., lifelong learning that supports life--work goals, locating and effectively using information, and understanding the relationship between work and society), and life/work building (e.g., securing/creating and maintaining work, making life- and work-enhancing decisions, maintaining balanced life and work roles).

Life Structure Counseling for Career Development

In his paper, Spencer Niles (2004) spoke of life structure counseling as an approach to career development programs that are more comprehensive. According to Niles, life structure counseling comprises the social elements that constitute life roles, and these roles organize and channel an individual's engagement in society, including occupational choice. In such a model, counseling focuses on life as people live it and views careers as the total constellation of life roles that people enact throughout their lifetimes. Life structure counselors help their clients clarify and articulate the values that are important to them and that they seek to express in their life roles. Once the clients identify their values, career practitioners can help construct career interventions that respond to all the clients' career concerns. Clients move beyond the idea of making a good living to living a good life. Career practitioners do not simply help clients make decisions about work but rather they assist clients in structuring the basic roles of work, play, friendship, and family into a life.

Dagley (2004) perhaps summarized the comprehensive nature of career development best when he noted,

      Career counseling is no longer a test-'em and tell-'em process, or
      a once and for all intervention for an individual to make a
      choice. Rather, there has been a paradigm shift to a perspective
      that envisions one's career as a complex process of development
      that takes place throughout one's life. (p. 11)

Topics for Further Study and Discussion

Through its papers and discussion, Group 3 revealed a number of topics that members of the group believe merit further research and/or discussion. Neault (2004) proposed the following question based on her report of the challenges faced by "global careerists":

* How can career practitioners help employers, educators, professional associations, and policy makers better understand the rich resources that are being overlooked by denying professional immigrants, and those who are repatriating, the opportunity to fully contribute their skills and rich international experience to the economy?

Peng's (2004) research suggested that many international students' adjustment problems are similar to the problems of Chinese college students who are returning from overseas. Her recommendations included the suggestion that

* Higher education institutions across the world address the career development needs of international students and increase the opportunities for them to participate in appropriate career education programs.

Dagley (2004) pointed to the apparent waning use of groups in career development. He proposed that

* Professional organizations and academic institutions entrusted with the professional development of career group leaders initiate a programmatic commitment to making career group leadership a high priority in future practice, research, and training efforts.

Many questions about the relationship of personal meaning and work throughout the world emerged in the group discussions.

* In developed countries, the alignment of work and life values has great appeal. However, people in many parts of the world are not in this privileged class and are doing work they do not like. In these situations, how can individuals regain the locus of control necessary to make relevant career decisions? Furthermore, in cultures where work decisions are not made by individuals but rather by their families, countries, or environment, how are the issues of love for and passion about career promoted?

* Work is often determined by economic concerns. How do career practitioners help individuals find meaning from their jobs when the purpose of working is driven by economic issues?

Changing and aging populations discussed by the group gave rise to a number of issues.

* Europe is experiencing a shift in its composition of available and emerging workers. How will countries handle production of goods and services with an aging population? How will they encourage younger workers to fill jobs that are more menial and less challenging, yet fall within their realistic career choices given their limited education, skill, and ability levels?

Closing Reflections

The need for appropriate, timely, and increasingly comprehensive career development and educational programs continues to escalate. It is interesting that despite the differences in cultures, religions, economies, political systems, and education structures, many countries face similar challenges when designing and implementing career development programs. Sharing and adapting career development interventions and techniques cross-culturally appear to be viable strategies for implementing or enhancing programs, provided the concepts and materials are tailored to the countries' unique requirements.

References

Dagley, J. C. (2004, June). Group interventions in career development: An agenda for practice, research and training. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Harrington, T. (2004, June). Some concerns about "do-it-yourself" counseling. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Jarvis, P. S. (2004, June). Career management skills: Keys to a great career and a great life. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Neault, R. (2004, June). Managing global careers: Challenges for the 21st century. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Niles, S. G. (2004, June). Life structure counseling for career development. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Nota, L., Soresi, S., Solberg, V. S. H., & Ferrari, L. (2004, June). School-career indecision: Methods of intervention and techniques used in the Italian context. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Peng, H. (2004, June). Research on returned overseas Chinese university/college students' career indecision and their state anxiety toward career choice. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Richard, G. V. (2004, June). International best practices in career development: Review of the literature. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Sampson, J. P., Jr., Watts, A. G., Palmer, M., & Hughes, D. (2000). International collaboration in translating career theory to practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 48, 332-339.

Smith-Victor, C. (2004, June). Career assessment and interventions at Dubai Women's College. In International perspectives on career development. Symposium conducted at a joint meeting of the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance and the National Career Development Association, San Francisco.

Rich W. Feller, Counseling and Career Development Program, School of Education, Colorado State University; Martha Russell, Russell Career Services, Battle Ground, Washington; Judy A. Whichard, Consulting Associates, Windsor, Colorado. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Rich W. Feller, School of Education, Fort Collins, CO 80525 (e-mail: [e-mail]).