Career self-efficacy and perceptions of parent support in adolescent career development.The authors examined the relative contributions of both proximal proximal /prox·i·mal/ (-mil) nearest to a point of reference, as to a center or median line or to the point of attachment or origin. prox·i·mal adj. and distal distal /dis·tal/ (-t'l) remote; farther from any point of reference. dis·tal adj. 1. Anatomically located far from a point of reference, such as an origin or a point of attachment. supports to the career interests and vocational self-efficacy self-efficacy (selfˈ-eˑ·fi·k in a multiethnic mul·ti·eth·nic adj. Of, relating to, or including several ethnic groups. Adj. 1. multiethnic - involving several ethnic groups multi-ethnic sample (N = 139) of middle school adolescents. Consistent with Social Cognitive Career Theory, it was found that (a) vocational self-efficacy and career planning/exploration efficacy consistently predicted young adolescents' career interests across Holland (J. L. Holland, D. R. Whitney, N. S. Cole, & J. M. Richards Rich·ards , Dickinson Woodruff 1895-1973. American physician. He shared a 1956 Nobel Prize for developing cardiac catheterization. , 1969) themes; (b) gender and career gender-typing predicted interests in Realistic, Investigative, and Social careers; and (c) perceived parent support accounted for 29% to 43% of the total unique variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality in vocational self-efficacy for all Holland theme careers. The role of parents and the role of professional school counselors A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in schools, and have historically been referred to as "guidance counselors" or "educational counselors," although "Professional School Counselor" is now the preferred term. go hand in hand in the career development of young adolescents. School guidance programs have an underlying purpose to assist students in making informed education and career decisions and to provide the resources and materials to ensure that this process unfolds in a systematic and comprehensive manner (Kosteck-Bunch, 2000). Guidance and counseling guidance and counseling, concept that institutions, especially schools, should promote the efficient and happy lives of individuals by helping them adjust to social realities. are integral parts of each school's total educational program, which is designed to support, facilitate, and encourage classroom instruction and student achievement. The National Career Development Guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. (Kobylarz, 1996), established in consultation with leading career development experts, recommended that professional school counselors attempt to establish student competencies around several broad areas that include career planning and occupational exploration. Middle school students who develop competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. in career planning and exploration gain confidence in such career development tasks as understanding the relationship between learning and work, understanding how to gain the information necessary to seek and obtain various jobs, and understanding the process of career planning (Lapan, Gysbers, Multon, & Pike pike, in zoology pike, common name for the family Esocidae, freshwater game and food fishes of Europe, Asia, and North America. The pike, the muskellunge, and the pickerel form a small but well-known group of long, thin fishes with spineless dorsal fins, ., 1997; O'Brien O'Bri·en , Edna Born 1932. Irish writer whose works, including The Lonely Girl (1962) and Johnny I Hardly Knew You (1977), explore the lives of women in modern-day Ireland. Noun 1. , Dukstein, Jackson Jackson. 1 City (1990 pop. 37,446), seat of Jackson co., S Mich., on the Grand River; inc. 1857. It is an industrial and commercial center in a farm region. , Tomlinson Tomlinson is a surname, and may refer to:
The role of parental influence and support outside the school setting has also been hypothesized to have a significant, positive impact on a child's career development process. Astin (1984) stated that parents act as "value socializers," shaping their children's perceptions of the appropriateness of occupational-related decisions. Eccles Eccles (ek`əlz), town (1991 pop. 37,166), Salford metropolitan district, NW England, in the Manchester metropolitan area on the Manchester Ship Canal. Industries include chemicals, rubber, plastics, textiles, and light and heavy engineering. (1994) theorized that parents are "expectancy A mere hope, based upon no direct provision, promise, or trust. An expectancy is the possibility of receiving a thing, rather than having a vested interest in it. The term has been applied to situations where an individual hopes and expects to receive something, generally socializers" who greatly influence their children's self-perceptions of being academically and vocationally competent. Young (1994) described parents as the primary providers of encouragement for their adolescents to reach vocational goals through both the modeling of career-related, goal-directed Adj. 1. goal-directed - having a purpose; "purposive behavior" purposive purposeful - serving as or indicating the existence of a purpose or goal behavior and by actively providing career-related learning experiences. Research has demonstrated some of the positive effects of parent support on adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. and young adult career development. For example, rural adolescents' perceptions of parent support for pursuing occupations that represent certain Holland (Holland, Whitney, Cole, & Richards, 1969) themes was a significant predictor of their interests in, vocational self-efficacy for, and valuing of these occupations (Lapan, Hinkelman, Adams Adams, town (1990 pop. 9,445), Berkshire co., NW Mass., in the Berkshires, on the Hoosic River; inc. 1778. Its manufactures include chemicals, textiles, and paper products. The Berkshire region attracts tourists year-round. , & Turner, 1999). Perceived support from fathers was found to be related to the education plans and career expectations of Mexican American Mexican American n. A U.S. citizen or resident of Mexican descent. Mex  i·can-A·mer high school girls High School Girls (女子高生 Joshi Kōsei (McWhirter,
Hackett Hackett may refer to:In places:
SCCT Suez Canal Container Terminal SCCT Sioux City Community Theatre ; L ent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994, 2000). SCCT (Lent Lent [Old Eng. lencten,=spring], Latin Quadragesima (meaning 40; thus the 40 days of Lent). In Christianity, Lent is a time of penance, prayer, preparation for or recollection of baptism, and preparation for the celebration of Easter. et al., 1994, 2000) provides a model for understanding how the perceived support of parents and the confidence gained through student participation in comprehensive guidance programs interact to support the career development of adolescents. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. this theory, proximal factors (e.g., race, gender, disability/health status, ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic ) directly predict career interests and the career choice process of young persons by either providing or limiting access to vocational preparation and employment opportunities. Distal factors (e.g., the environmental supports provided by parents, teachers, and professional school counselors) exert a moderating effect through learning experiences on the young person's career-related self-efficacy and outcome expectations, which then mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. the formation of interests, career-related intentions, and career-related goals. Gender and the gender-typing of careers are related to career interest patterns (Lapan, Adams, Turner, & Hinkelman, 2000); career self-efficacy (t he confidence to perform career specific tasks) and career planning/exploration efficacy are related to and predictive of the range of occupations considered (O'Brien et al., 1999; Rotberg, Brown, & Ware, 1987), the level of occupational interests (Bores-Rangel, Church, Szendre, & Reeves, 1990; Church, Teresa Teresa of Ávila, St. religious contemplation brought her spiritual ecstasy. [Christian Hagiog.: Attwater, 318] See : Mysticism , Rosebrook, & Szendre, 1992), and the confidence to pursue career-related tasks (Ahrens Ahrens was an aircraft manufacturer established at Oxnard, California in 1975 to develop a STOL regional airliner and cargo aircraft, the AR 404. The firm secured a deal with the Government of Puerto Rico to assist with development costs if the aircraft could be produced there. & O'Brien, 1996) among adolescents and young adults. Purpose of the Study The literature suggests that in order to participate in a more intentional in·ten·tion·al adj. 1. Done deliberately; intended: an intentional slight. See Synonyms at voluntary. 2. Having to do with intention. and self-directed self-di·rect·ed adj. Directed or guided by oneself, especially as an independent agent: the self-directed study of a language. self way in their own career development process, young adolescents need both the support of their parents and involvement in a comprehensive school-based guidance program that develops confidence around such career-related competencies as career planning and occupational exploration. To date, however, little attention has been given to examining the combined effects of career self-efficacy, career planning/exploration efficacy, and perceptions of parent support on the career interests of middle school adolescents. We used a SCCT framework to examine the relative indirect contribution of perceived parent support (a distal environmental factor) to career self-efficacy as a mediator mediator n. a person who conducts mediation. A mediator is usually a lawyer, or retired judge, but can be a non-attorney specialist in the subject matter (like child custody) who tries to bring people and their disputes to early resolution through a conference. of career interests; the relative direct contributions of two proximal factors (gender and the gender-typing of careers) to middle school adolescents' career interests; the relative direct contributions of career self-efficacy and career planning /exploration efficacy to the career interests of middle school adolescents; and, as a test of SCCT theory, the relative direct contribution of the distal environmental factor, perceived parent support, to the career interests of young adolescents. Specifically, we hypothesized that (a) the proximal supports of gender and career gender-typing, as well as career self-efficacy and career planning/exploration efficacy would significantly and differentially predict middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland (Holland et al., 1969) themes; (b) perceived parent support would significantly and differentially predict middle school adolescents' career self-efficacy across Holland themes; and (c) perceived parent support would directly predict middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland themes. Participants Participants were 139 seventh- and eighth-grade students who were distributed approximately equally between the two grades (79 boys, mean age 12.62 years, SD = .71 years; 60 girls, mean age = 12.55 years, SD = .72 years). Eighty-four of the students were Caucasian Caucasian or Caucasoid: see race. Americans, 21 were African Americans African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. , 18 were foreign nationals, 12 were Asian Americans This page is a list of Asian Americans. Politics
adj. 1. Of or relating to a person who has left one country and settled in another. 2. Of or relating to a person or persons whose parents are immigrants. 3. Americans from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East who were born outside the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . The participants were from a midsized midwestern Mid·west or Middle West A region of the north-central United States around the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi Valley. It is generally considered to include Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and community. All participants attended one of two middle schools that offered. comprehensive guidance, including career planning and exploration activities, to all students throughout the school year. Both schools were in middle-class middle class n. The socioeconomic class between the working class and the upper class. mid  dle-class neighborhoods. Participants were recruited by one teacher from each
school by asking for volunteers from each teacher's career
development classes.Measures Mapping vocational challenges. Occupational interests, career self-efficacy expectations (the confidence to perform career specific tasks), perceived parent support for pursing particular occupations, and career gender-typing were measured using Mapping Vocational Challenges (MVC (Model View Controller) An architecture for building applications that separate the data (model) from the user interface (view) and the processing (controller). ; Lapan & Turner, 1997). The MVC is a computerized computerized adapted for analysis, storage and retrieval on a computer. computerized axial tomography see computed tomography. self-report assessment instrument that consists of the titles of 90 occupations, 15 for each Holland (Holland et al., 1969) occupational theme (Realistic [trades], Investigative [mathematics and science], Artistic, Enterprising en·ter·pris·ing adj. Showing initiative and willingness to undertake new projects: The enterprising children opened a lemonade stand. [person-oriented business professions], Social [helping professions], and Conventional [data-oriented business professions]). These 90 occupations were presented sequentially to the participants. As each of the occupations was presented, the participants rated their interest level on a 3-point Likert-type scale (1 = low interest, 3 = high interest); their efficacy expectations on a dichotomous di·chot·o·mous adj. 1. Divided or dividing into two parts or classifications. 2. Characterized by dichotomy. di·chot scale (0 = I do not have confidence I could do this type of job, 1 = I have confidence I could do this type of job); their perceived gender-typing of the occupation on a 5-point Likert-type scale (0 = mostly men, 4 = mostly women); and their perceptions of parent support on a dichotomous scale (0 = My parents would not support ort me in pursuing this occupation, 1 = My parents would support me in pursuing this occupation). For each Holland (Holland et al., 1969) theme category, we constructed four variables by taking the mean scale scores for each participant. These variables were interest level in the occupations in that Holland category (e.g., Realistic Interest), career self-efficacy (confidence to perform career-related tasks) for the occupations in that category (e.g., Realistic Career Efficacy), the gender-typing of the careers in that category (e.g., Realistic Gender-Typing), and the level of perceived parent support for careers in that category (e.g., Realistic Parent Support). These variables, which are reported in Table 1, were constructed by raking raking of an elephant—see back raking. the mean of the 15 ratings for each scale item within each of the Holland occupational categories. For the career interests scales, internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. estimates ranged from .70 to .77 for girls, .70 to .77 for boys, and .70 to .76 for the total sample. For the career self-efficacy scales, internal consistency estimates ranged from .79 to .84 for girls, .77 to .85 for boys, and .78 to .84 for the total sample. For the perceived parent support scales, internal consistency estimates ranged from .82 to .91 for boys, .83 to .87 for girls, and .82 to .89 for the total sample. Reliabilities for the gender-typing scales were not calculated because of the lack of variability among the participants' ratings. Career Planning and Exploration Efficacy Scale. Career planning and occupational exploration efficacy was measured using the Career Planning and Exploration Efficacy Scale (CPEE) from the Missouri Missouri, state, United States Missouri (mĭz  r`ē, –ə), one of the midwestern states of the United States. Comprehensive
Guidance Survey (MCGS mcgs MicrogramsMCGS Moscow Center for Gender Studies MCGS Microwave Command Guidance System ; Gysbers, Multon, Lapan, & Lukin Lukin may refer to: People with the surname Lukin:
adj. 1. Corresponding; congruous. 2. Mathematics a. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles. b. careers. Sample items from this scale are "I know how to explore careers in which I may be interested," and "I understand how to prepare for careers in which I may be interested." The CPEE is scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = low confidence, 7 = high confidence). Higher scores indicate greater confidence. As reported in Table 1, one variable was constructed for the CPEE by taking the mean of participants' ratings for all scale items. Internal consistency estimates for the CPEE were .73 for boys, .82 for girls, and .76 for the total sample. Procedure During the fall semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s of the school year, participants engaged in a variety of career planning and exploration activities, such as exploring labor market labor market A place where labor is exchanged for wages; an LM is defined by geography, education and technical expertise, occupation, licensure or certification requirements, and job experience access, work activities, working conditions, educational requirements, salary levels, and occupational outlooks for specific careers. The participants completed two separate career interest inventories and participated in a 1-day job shadowing activity at a local business or factory. During the first 2 weeks of the following spring semester, the participants completed the MVC and the CPEE scale of the MCGS. These instruments were completed in classroom settings in which there were approximately 20 to 25 students. The testing was done in a series of five steps. First, participants viewed an online tutorial An instructional book or program that takes the user through a prescribed sequence of steps in order to learn a product. Contrast with documentation, which, although instructional, tends to group features and functions by category. See tutorials in this publication. and received 10 minutes of pretest pre·test n. 1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study. b. A test taken for practice. 2. verbal instruction and practice in computerized test taking. Second, demographic information (age, gender, place of residence, ethnicity) was collected from participants. Next, participants completed the MVC career asse ssment instrument, which took approximately 25 to 30 minutes. Participants then completed the MCGS, which took approximately 15 minutes. Finally, participants were offered the opportunity to discuss their experiences with the assessment process and what they learned about themselves. One adolescent with an identified reading problem received teacher assistance in completing the MVC and the CPEE Scale, but his results were excluded from the subsequent statistical analyses. Results Hypothesis 1 stated that gender, career gender-typing, career self-efficacy, and career planning/exploration efficacy would significantly and differentially predict middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland (Holland et al., 1969) themes. To test this hypothesis, six multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analyses were conducted, one for each Holland theme, with the interest level for occupations categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat by each Holland theme as the dependent variables. Gender, the gender-typing of careers in that category, career self-efficacy for the careers in that category, and career planning/exploration efficacy were the independent variables. Table 2 reports the correlation matrix Noun 1. correlation matrix - a matrix giving the correlations between all pairs of data sets statistics - a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population of the variables for each equation. Hypothesis 1 was partially supported. As shown in Table 3, four variables together significantly predicted interests in Realistic, Investigative, and Social occupations, with each adding significant unique variance to the prediction equation. Gender, career gender-typing, career self-efficacy, and career planning/exploration efficacy accounted for 25% of the total variance in Realistic interests, 30% of the total variance in Investigative interests, and 23% of the total variance in Social interests. Three variables significantly predicted interests in Artistic occupations: gender, career self-efficacy, and career planning! exploration efficacy, which accounted for 18% of the total variance in Artistic interests. Only two variables significantly predicted interests in Enterprising and Conventional occupations. For enterprising interests, career self-efficacy, and career planning/exploration efficacy accounted for 19% of the total variance. For conventional interests, career self-efficacy, and career planning exploration efficacy accounted for 12% of the total variance. Post hoc post hoc adv. & adj. In or of the form of an argument in which one event is asserted to be the cause of a later event simply by virtue of having happened earlier: analyses using paired-samples t tests with alpha set to .05/(c) (number of comparisons) to control for Type II experiment-wise error (Ferguson Ferguson, city (1990 pop. 22,286), St. Louis co., E Mo., a suburb of St. Louis; inc. 1894. It is primarily residential. & Takane, 1989) indicated that participants gender-typed Realistic and Investigative careers as employing significantly more men than Artistic (t = -2.37, p < .001; t -10.39, p < .001), Social (t = -19.34, p < .001; t = -16.93, p < .001), Enterprising (t = -12.83, p < .001; t = -9.65, p < .001), or Conventional careers (t = -15.17, p < .001; t = -12.26, p < .001). Participants gender-typed Artistic and Enterprising careers as employing approximately the same number of men and women (t = -1.56, p < .123). In addition, participants gender-typed Social and Conventional careers as employing significantly more women than Realistic (t = 19.34, p < .001; t = 15.17, p < .001), Investigative (t = 16.93, p < .001; t = 12.26, p < .001), and Artistic careers (t = 8.15, p < .001; t = 3.87, p < .001), and gender-typed Social careers as employing significantly more women tha n Enterprising careers (t = 6.29, p < .001). Means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for the gender-typing variables are found in Table 1. Post hoc analyses using independent samples t tests with alpha set to .05/ (c) (number of comparisons) to control for Type II experiment-wise error (Ferguson & Takane, 1989) also indicated that boys had greater interests than girls in Realistic (t = 3.24, p < .003) and Investigative careers (t = 3.71, p < .001). Girls had greater interests than boys in Artistic (F = 4.73, p < .032) and Social careers (F= 13.22, p < .001). Means and standard deviations for the interest variables are also found in Table 1. Hypothesis 2 stated that perceived parent support would significantly and differentially predict adolescents' career self-efficacy across Holland (Holland et al., 1969) themes. To test this prediction, six linear regressions Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. were run with the efficacy level for occupations in each Holland theme category as the dependent variables and perceived parent support for occupations in that Holland theme category as the independent variables. Table 1 reports the means and standard deviations for each variable used in these analyses. Table 2 reports the correlation matrix of the variables used in these equations. Hypothesis 2 was supported. As reported in Table 3, perceived parent support significantly and differentially predicted adolescents' career self-efficacy across Holland (Holland et al., 1969) themes. Parent support for pursuing Holland theme occupations accounted for the following unique variance in career self-efficacy for each category: Investigative, 43%; Conventional, 41%; Enterprising, 36%; Realistic, 35%; Social, 31%; and Artistic, 29%. Hypothesis 3 stated that perceived parent support would directly predict middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland themes. To test this hypothesis, multiple regressions were conducted; the independent variables were perceived parent support for each of the Holland (Holland et al., 1969) theme career categories, and the dependent variables were interests in careers in each of the Holland themes. Hypothesis 3 was not supported. Perceived parent support did not directly predict young adolescents' career interests in any of the Holland theme categories (Realistic t = -.8, p > .05; Investigative = -1.92, p > .05; Artistic t = -1.08, p > .05; Social t = -1.66, p> .05; Enterprising t = -1.17, p > .05; Conventional t = -.97, p > .05). Table 2 reports the correlation matrix of the variables used in these equations. Discussion This study examined the relationships among perceived parent support, career self-efficacy, career planning/exploration efficacy, gender and career gender-typing, and the career interests of middle school adolescents. Consistent with SCCT, results indicate that career self-efficacy, career planning/ exploration efficacy, and perceived parent support interactively predicted young adolescents' career interests for all Holland (Holland et al., 1969) type careers. Specifically, our findings indicate that career self-efficacy, and career planning/exploration efficacy directly and differentially predicted middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland themes. The distal factor of perceived parent support was not directly associated with young adolescents' career interests but did directly predict their career self-efficacy. The proximal factors of gender and career gender-typing directly predicted middle school adolescents' interests in Realistic, Investigative, and Social careers but not in Artistic, E nterprising, or Conventional careers. Moreover, our results indicate that the set of predictor variables Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression) variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values under study accounted for somewhat smaller proportions of the variance in Artistic interests (17%), Enterprising interests (19%), and Conventional interests (12%), than in Realistic (25%), Investigative (30%), and Social (23%) interests, although perceived parent support accounted for substantial proportions of the variance in career self-efficacy for all Holland type careers (Realistic, 36%; Investigative, 43%; Artistic, 29%; Social, 36%; Enterprising, 36%; Conventional, 41%). For Realistic, Investigative, and Social careers, post hoc analyses revealed that gender and gender-typing differences were accounted for by participants' perceptions that more men were employed in Realistic and Investigative careers, with boys having greater interests in these careers; furthermore, participants perceived that more women were employed in Social careers, with girls having greater interests in these careers. These analyses confirm the results of previous studies (Bores-Rangel et al., 1990; Church et al., 1992; Lapan, Shaughnessy This article is about the neighborhood in Vancouver, B.C.; for other uses, see Shaughnessy (disambiguation). Shaughnessy is an almost entirely residential neighbourhood in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, spanning about 447 hectares[1] , & Boggs Boggs is a surname, and may refer to:
Taken together, our findings indicate that the variance in Artistic, Enterprising, and Conventional career interests may be better accounted for by other proximal or distal supports than were included in this study (e.g., proximal factors such as values, abilities, or performance might account for more of the variance). Approximately one fourth of the variance in Realistic, Investigative, and Social careers interests, however, was accounted for by variables other than abilities and performance, suggesting that a variety of career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action interventions may be helpful to extend the range of occupations young adolescents are considering when making initial education and occupation choices. Next, our results indicate that career planning/exploration efficacy and career self-efficacy were both significantly associated with middle school adolescents' career interests across Holland themes. This finding extends previous career self-efficacy research, which has focused on the confidence to perform career specific tasks (Betz Betz may refer to:
aspirations npl (= hopes, ambition) → aspirations fpl for careers that they may have perceived to be inaccessible inaccessible Surgery adjective Unreachable; referring to a lesion that unmanageable by standard surgical techniques–eg, lesions deep in the brain or adjacent to vital structures–ie, not accessible. See Accessible. . Finally, our results suggest that the strong associations between young adolescents' perceptions of parental support for pursuing particular types of careers and the confidence young adolescents have for performing tasks related to those careers may stand in contrast to older adolescents dependence on other environmental career supports, such as peer support (McWhirter et al., 1998). It is particularly noteworthy that for younger adolescents, parent support accounted for as much as approximately one third to almost one half of their children's career-task related confidence. Therefore, we suggest that early adolescence adolescence, time of life from onset of puberty to full adulthood. The exact period of adolescence, which varies from person to person, falls approximately between the ages 12 and 20 and encompasses both physiological and psychological changes. may be a critical time for parental involvement in the career development of their children. Suggestions for Practitioners On the basis of our findings, we suggest that professional school counselors can use the SCCT framework to guide their school counseling interventions, using a two-pronged Adj. 1. two-pronged - having two prongs divided - separated into parts or pieces; "opinions are divided" approach. First, professional school counselors can provide to middle school students counseling interventions that are designed to reduce the effects of career gender-typing and increase career planning/exploration efficacy across a variety of careers. Second, they can train and assist parents in providing opportunities to increase their adolescents' task-performance-focused career self-efficacy. In working directly with students, we recommend several interventions that can reduce the effects of career gender-typing. One intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. is to use the interpretative in·ter·pre·ta·tive adj. Variant of interpretive. in·ter pre·ta report that is produced after
individual administration of the MVC computer program. This report gives
professional school counselors and middle school students a description
of how young adolescents' confidence in particular occupations are
affected by their perceptions of career gender-typing, and it allows the
counselor to ask questions such as, "Is there any career that you
think would be fun that is a boy's (girl's) career?"
Another intervention that could help middle school students challenge
their gender-stereotyping of occupations is to use video clips A short video presentation. and
informational interviews with adults who are engaged in nontraditional
careers or interviews with older adolescents who are preparing for
nontraditional careers.To help increase middle school adolescents' career planning/exploration efficacy, we suggest that professional school counselors assist their students in learning career planning and exploration skills. For example, young people can engage in self-exploration skills through taking, and having interpreted to them, career assessment instruments that are designed specifically for middle school students. The MCGS, for example, can help students assess their strengths in the area of career planning/exploration, as well as those career planning/exploration skills they still want to develop. The Unisex ACT Interest Inventory-Revised (American College American College is the name of:
A research agency of the U.S. Department of Labor; it compiles statistics on hours of work, average hourly earnings, employment and unemployment, consumer prices and many other variables. (2001) Web site "BLS See Bureau of Labor Statistics. Career Information: Jobs for Kids Who Like..." provide career information that is suitable for sixth-, seventh-, and e ighth-grade learners, as well as affording them the opportunity to discover what types of occupational information will be important for them to explore throughout their careers. To assist parents in increasing their adolescents' career self-efficacy, we recommend that they be given the opportunity to understand more thoroughly the types of careers that will be available for their children. To do this, professional school counselors should provide parents with career information about specific occupations. This career information can be presented in various ways, including weekly columns in the school bulletin, information about highlighted careers on school listserves, and family nights at the school career center. We also recommend that professional school counselors hold parent training seminars to teach parents career-related communication skills, such as how to listen to their adolescents' career concerns, how to provide adolescents with verbal feedback about career choices, and how to provide adolescents with individual instruction in work-related skills and values (Paa & McWhirter, 2000; Young & Friesen, 1992). Limitations of the Study This study did not assess the effectiveness of school-based comprehensive guidance programs in increasing career-related efficacy The study, instead, relied on previous statewide research that found that participation in such guidance programs significantly increased efficacy in targeted competency areas. This study also did not measure the magnitude of career self-efficacy or perceived parent support in the current sample of middle school adolescents. Suggestions for Future Research We suggest that subsequent research should focus on the interaction of different types of parent support with middle school adolescents' confidence to pursue certain career paths or to engage in certain types of career choice behavior. Future research should also focus on discovering the most effective ways for parents to support young women's interests and preparation for mathematics, science, and technology careers, and young men's interests in careers such as teaching and counseling. We also suggest that research focus on ways that other proximal factors, such as race/ethnicity and health/disability status influence career interests, and on ways that other background distal factors, such as teacher support or specialized spe·cial·ize v. spe·cial·ized, spe·cial·iz·ing, spe·cial·iz·es v.intr. 1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study. 2. . technology, interact with and influence career efficacy. Finally, we suggest that outcome studies be conducted on the most effective ways that career exploration for specific careers can increase early career interests and aid in the career choice process among young adolescents.
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations for Dependent and Independent Variables
for Each Holland Occupational Category
R I A
Variable M SD M SD M
Interests
Boys 1.77 0.32 1.90 0.37 1.80
Girls 1.59 0.31 1.67 0.35 1.93
Total 1.69 0.33 1.80 0.38 1.86
Career Self-
Efficacy
Boys 0.26 0.26 0.30 0.25 0.31
Girls 0.19 0.20 0.25 0.22 0.36
Total 0.24 0.24 0.28 0.24 0.33
Occupational
Gender-Typing
Boys 1.54 0.28 1.59 0.33 1.88
Girls 1.50 0.29 1.62 0.27 2.01
Total 1.52 0.28 1.60 0.30 1.93
Perceived
Parent
Support
Boys 0.29 0.28 0.35 0.31 0.35
Girls 0.23 0.24 0.32 0.26 0.38
Total 0.26 0.26 0.34 0.29 0.35
Career Planning
and Exploration
Efficacy
Boys 5.71 0.69
Girls 5.85 0.69
Total 5.77 0.69
A S E
Variable SD M SD M SD
Interests
Boys 0.32 1.54 0.31 1.58 0.34
Girls 0.35 1.74 0.33 1.62 0.35
Total 0.34 1.62 0.34 1.60 0.34
Career Self-
Efficacy
Boys 0.24 0.19 0.22 0.21 0.25
Girls 0.25 0.32 0.22 0.24 0.23
Total 0.24 0.25 0.23 0.22 0.24
Occupational
Gender-Typing
Boys 0.29 2.19 0.26 1.95 0.32
Girls 0.23 2.18 0.30 2.03 0.32
Total 0.27 2.18 0.27 1.98 0.32
Perceived
Parent
Support
Boys 0.33 0.25 0.29 0.24 0.31
Girls 0.26 0.35 0.26 0.24 0.27
Total 0.26 0.29 0.28 0.24 0.29
Career Planning
and Exploration
Efficacy
Boys
Girls
Total
C
Variable M SD
Interests
Boys 1.53 0.29
Girls 1.58 0.36
Total 1.55 0.31
Career Self-
Efficacy
Boys 0.20 0.26
Girls 0.22 0.24
Total 0.21 0.25
Occupational
Gender-Typing
Boys 2.05 0.26
Girls 2.06 0.30
Total 2.05 0.28
Perceived
Parent
Support
Boys 0.23 0.31
Girls 0.25 0.26
Total 0.24 0.29
Career Planning
and Exploration
Efficacy
Boys
Girls
Total
Note: R = Realistic; I = Investigative; A = Artistic; S = Social; E =
Enterprising; C = Conventional. df = 138; n = 79 boys; n = 60 girl.
Scores on the Interest Scale range from 1 to 3, with higher scores
indicating higher interest. Scores on the Career Self-Efficacy Scale
range from 0 to 1, with 0 = no efficacy and 1 = efficacy. Scores on
Occupational Gender-Typing Scale range from 0 to 4, with higher scores
indicating more women and lower scores indicating more men. Scores on
the Perceived Parent Support Scale range from 0 to 1, with 0 = no
perception of parental support and = perception of parental support.
Scores on the Career Planning and Exploration Efficacy Scale range from
1 to 7, with higher scores indicating greater efficacy.
TABLE 2
Correlations of Dependent Variables and Independent Variables From Each
Holland Occupational Category
Variable/Interest Int Gender GenTyp VocEff Par CPEE
Realistic
Int -- -.27 ** -.21 * .25 ** .01 -.27 **
Gender -- -.07 -.15 -.03 .10
GenTyp -- .03 .16 * .08
VocEff -- .68 * .18
Par -- .07
Investigative
Int -- -.28 ** -.18 * .36 *** .05 -.24 **
Gender -- .04 -.11 .05 .10
GenTyp -- -.03 .04 -.07
VocEff -- .72 ** .18 *
Par -- .11
Artistic
Int -- .18 * -.10 .29 ** .06 -.14
Gender -- .24 ** .10 .14 .11
GenTyp -- -.01 -.04 -.03
VocEff -- .65 ** .19 *
Par -- .12
Social
Int -- .29 ** -.24 ** .23 ** .08 -.23 **
Gender -- -.01 .28 ** .24 ** .10
GenTyp -- -.06 -.08 .18 *
VocEff -- .66 ** .24 **
Par -- .08
Enterprising
Int -- .05 -.18 * .15 .05 -.35 ***
Gender -- .13 .06 .15 * .10
GenTyp -- -.12 .01 .15
VocEff -- .70 ** .16
Par -- .07
Conventional
Int -- .08 -.08 .19 * .05 -.22 *
Gender -- .03 .04 .15 * .10
GenTyp -- .04 .02 .04
VocEff -- .73 ** .23 **
Par -- .11
Note: Int = Interests; GenTyp = Gender-Typing; VocEff = Career
Self-Efficacy; Par = Perceived Parental Support; CPEE = Career Planning
and Exploration Efficacy. Correlations are Pearson product- moment
coefficients. df = 138.
* p < .05.
** p < .01.
*** p < .001.
TABLE 3
Results of Regression Analyses Showing the Amount of Unique Variance in
Interests and Career Self-Efficacy Across Holland Theme Occupational
Categories
Variable R [R.sup.2] [beta] F t
Realistic interests .50 .25 10.96 ***
Gender -.22 -2.86 **
Gender-Typing -.22 -2.86 **
Career Self-Efficacy .27 3.52 **
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.28 3.59 ***
Investigative Interests .54 .30 14.21 ***
Gender -.20 -2.72 **
Gender-Typing -.18 -2.49 *
Career Self-Efficacy .38 5.16 ***
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.30 -4.08 ***
Artistic interests .41 .17 6.99 ***
Gender .21 2.58 *
Gender-Typing -.15 -1.86
Career Self-Efficacy .31 3.81 ***
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.22 -2.78 **
Social interests .48 .23 9.98 ***
Gender .25 3.23 **
Gender-Typing -.18 -2.36 *
Career Self-Efficacy .21 2.61 *
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.27 -3.44 **
Enterprising interests .43 .19 9.98 ***
Gender .09 1.19
Gender-Typing -.11 -1.39
Career Self-Efficacy .19 2.38
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.37 -4.67 ***
Conventional interests .35 .12 -4.71 **
Gender .10 1.20
Gender-Typing -.08 -1.03
Career Self-Efficacy .25 3.01 **
Career Planning and
Exploration Efficacy -.28 -3.38 **
Realistic efficacy .59 .35 74.94 ***
Parental Support .59 8.66 ***
Investigative efficacy .66 .43 104.18 ***
Parental Support .66 10.21 ***
Artistic efficacy .54 .29 55.90 ***
Parental Support .54 7.48 ***
Social efficacy .55 .31 60.98 ***
Parental Support .55 7.81 ***
Enterprising efficacy .60 .36 76.45 ***
Parental Support .60 8.74 ***
Conventional efficacy .64 .41 95.65 ***
Parental Support .64 9.78 ***
Note: df for Interest equations = (4, 134); df for Career Self- Efficacy
equations = (1, 138); n = 79 boys, n = 61 girls.
* p <. 05.
** p <. 01.
*** p <. 001.
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Kosteck-Bunch, L. (2000). Guidance and placement. Retrieved April 14, 2001, from http://www.dese.state.mo.us/divvoced/guid/. Lapan, R. T., Adams, A., Turner, S., & Hinkelman, J. M. (2000). Seventh graders' vocational interest and efficacy expectation patterns. Journal of Career Development, 26, 215-229. Lapan, R. T., Gysbers, N. C., Multon, K. D., & Pike, G. R. (1997). Developing guidance competency self-efficacy scales for high school and middle school students. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development 30, 4-16. Lapan, R. T., Hinkelman, J. M., Adams, A., & Turner, S. (1999). Understanding rural adolescents' interests, values, and efficacy expectations. Journal of Career Development, 26, 107-124. Lapan, R. T., Kardash, C., & Turner, S. (2002). Empowering students to become self-regulated learners. Professional School Counseling, 5(4), 257-265. Lapan, R. T., Shaughnessy, P., & Boggs, K. (1996). Efficacy expectations and vocational interests as mediators between sex and choice of math/science college majors: A longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 277-291. Lapan, R. T., & Turner, S. L. (1997). Mapping Vocational Challenges [Unpublished assessment instrument]. (Available on request from the first author) Lent, R. W, Brown, S.D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory Social Cognitive Theory utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal & of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2000). Contextual supports and barriers to career choice: A social cognitive analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 36-49. McWhirter, E. H., Hackett, G., & Bandalos, D. L. (1998). A causal model A causal model is an abstract model that uses cause and effect logic to describe the behaviour of a system. See also [IMG][1]]
O'Brien, K. M., Dukstein, R. D., Jackson, S. L., Tomlinson, M. J., & Kamatuka, N. A. (1999). Broadening career horizons for students in at-risk environments. The Career Development Quarterly, 47, 215-229. Paa, H. K., & McWhirter, E. H. (2000). Perceived influences on high school students' current career expectations. The Career Development Quarterly, 49, 29-44. Rotberg, H. L., Brown, D., & Ware, W. B. (1987). Career self-efficacy expectations and perceived range of career options in community college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 164-170. Young, R. A. (1994). Helping adolescents with career development: The active role of parents. The Career Development Quarterly, 42, 195-203. Young, R. A., & Friesen, J. D. (1992). The intentions of parents in influencing the career development of their children. The Career Development Quarterly, 40, 198-207. Sherri Turner Sherri Turner (b October 4 1956, Greenville, South Carolina) is a professional golfer. Turner attended Furman University and joined the LPGA Tour in 1984. She won three events on the tour, including one major, the 1988 LPGA Championship. , Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Student Personnel Psychology, University of Minnesota (body, education) University of Minnesota - The home of Gopher. http://umn.edu/. Address: Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. ; Richard T. Lapan, Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, University of Missouri--Columbia. This research was funded in part by a grant from the University of Missouri college of Education's Math, Science, and Technology Initiative. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sherri Turner, Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling and Student Personnel Psychology, University of Minnesota, 139A Burton Hall, 178 Pillsbury Drive SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (e-mail: turne047@umn.edu). |
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