Career issues and workplace considerations for the transsexual community: bridging a gap of knowledge for career counselors and mental heath care providers.

The field of career counseling has addressed the needs of several minority groups; however, the transsexual community has consistently been overlooked. Transsexual individuals may face many personal and professional obstacles due to the complex psychological aspects and expensive medical procedures inherent in transitioning (the complex and multidimensional process of changing genders). Maintaining employment and a steady income are vital when engaging in this costly transition experience. In this article, the authors bridge a gap of knowledge for career counselors and mental health care providers by identifying possible workplace issues and propose 4 primary competency components. A critique of the current literature, recommendations for counselors, and directions for future research are discussed.

As the field of career counseling has expanded, relevant information has become more accessible to minority and underrepresented populations (Bieschke, Eberz, Bard, & Croteau, 1998; Croteau, 1996; Leong & Hardin, 2002; Thompson, 2005). Unfortunately, one group that has consistently received little attention in the career literature is the transgender/transsexual community (Chung, 2003). This community has been referred to in articles discussing lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) issues; however, limited information is provided regarding unique career issues or workplace concerns for those who identify as the "T." Although career issues are a common concern for transgender/transsexual individuals seeking psychotherapy (Rachlin, 2002), no known published empirical research exists to date that specifically addresses how counselors (both career and mental health) can assist with career and workplace concerns.

In this article, we attempt to bridge a gap of knowledge for career counselors and mental health care providers who may work with transgender/transsexual clients. First, we provide definitions of transgender/ transsexual terminology and general information so that counselors may gain basic knowledge to communicate effectively. Second, we discuss common career and workplace issues faced by the transsexual community. Given the scarcity of empirical data on this subject, theoretical and anecdotal information was our primary source. Third, we provide a critique of the current psychological literature to highlight its strengths and weaknesses. Fourth, we provide recommendations for career counselors and mental health care workers and discuss future research. Three caveats should be discussed, however, before we proceed.

First, we recognize the lack of empirical research exploring the utility, of specific career interventions or assessments for the transgender/trans-sexual community. Much like the situation when Pope (1995) did his early work on career interventions for lesbians and gay men, the current state of the career literature focused on the transgender/transsexual community suggests that the use of anecdotal, clinical, and theoretical sources is common and necessary for future empirical research to proceed. We also believe that such evidence is invaluable during the early stages of career development research, and we hope the review in this article will provide that foundation for future empirical research with the transgender/transsexual community.

The second caveat regards the topic of what seems to be a perception that a dichotomy exists between the theory and the practice of personal counseling and career counseling (Haverkamp & Moore, 1993). As do Betz and Corning (1990), we believe that all counselors must view their clients and their clients' concerns as a "constellation" of factors, including work, career, love, and friendships. We see more similarities than differences between career counseling and personal counseling. We believe that both personal and career issues are presented to a counselor regardless of whether she or he identifies as a career counselor or a mental health care counselor. For that reason, we refer to both types of providers as counselors. Moreover, we discuss specific career issues and workplace obstacles along with the possible personal and psychological struggles encountered with such concerns (because they cannot be clearly separated).

Third, as we discuss later in this article, the lengdi of time needed for an individual to fully transition (see definition of transitioning in Terminology section) can take years, sometimes decades, and some individuals do not choose to participate in all available surgeries to hilly transition. Moreover, some of the issues described in this article are lifelong obstacles that may be continually faced, whereas others may be more immediate obstacles faced during a specific point in the transition. That being said, there rarely are bipolar and unique pretransition and posttransition experiences for an individual. Therefore, the following discussion is not divided as such, and counselors should consider that any of the concerns related to these specific experiences may take place at any point. Now that our assumptions have been explicated, we next review terminology.

Terminology

The following transgender terms are drawn primarily from the Human Rights Campaign's (HRC; Sheehy, 2004) handbook provided for managers to help them deal more effectively with transgender employees. HRC is the nation's leading advocacy organization for the LGBT community.

* gender expression: Refers to the many ways an individual communicates her or his gender to others. This may involve how the person behaves or her or his physical characteristics. Examples include clothing, speech patterns, as well as physical appearance and mannerisms.

* gender identity: Refers to a person's internal identification as male or female. It is important to note that an individual's gender identity may or may not be the person's assigned biological sex at birth.

* Gender Identity Disorder (GID) and Gender Dysphoria: The American Psychiatric Association's diagnosis for individuals who experience emotional distress because of the conflict between her or his gender identity and her or his assigned sex. Such conflict causes significant emotional anguish and discomfort. It is important to note that not all transsexual individuals struggle with GID or Gender Dysphoria.

* sexual orientation: Refers to an individual's attraction (emotional, physical, spiritual, etc.) to another human being. This attraction may be to someone of the same or opposite gender. Although sexual orientation and gender identity are often confused, they are not interchangeable. That is, an individual's sexual orientation is completely separate from her or his gender identity, and it is important to note this distinction.

* transgender. Refers to any person whose gender identity or expression is not aligned with conventional gender norms. Transgender is a general term used to encompass various related words, including

transsexual: This is a person who identifies with the roles, expectations, and expressions more commonly associated with a sex different from the one she or he was assigned at birth. A transsexual often seeks to change her or his physical characteristics and manner of expression to satisfy the standards for membership in the other gender (transition). This may or may not include hormone therapy and eventual sex reassignment surgery. Upon transition, transsexuals may call themselves male to female (MTF) or female to male (FTM) to acknowledge their change in appearance to match their gender identity. Whether a person is transsexual has no direct or predictable connection to her or his sexual orientation (Sheehy, 2004, p. 6).

* transitioning. Refers to the process used to alter, transform, and/or modify one's physical characteristics, behaviors, and mannerisms to "satisfy membership" in the gender other than that assigned at birth. This process manifests in different ways including surgery, hormone therapy, or living as a member of the opposite gender.

* cross dresser. Refers to a biological male who wears clothes and acces sories that are considered to be more suitable for the female gender. Cross dressers, however, do not want to permanently change their physical characteristics. Although not considered an affirming term, cross dressers are also known as transvestites. An important distinction is that although the definition of cross dressers includes only biological males, other authors (e.g., K. M. Ellis & Erikson, 2002) have also included both males and females in their definition.

Although the current article mainly addresses issues pertinent to transsexual individuals (i.e., those who are transitioning or who may transition), the umbrella term transgender is periodically used because many of the same issues are relevant to those whose gender presentation does not fit their assigned sex at birth. There is a range of individuals who identify as transgender and/or transsexual, and regardless of how they identify, many share similar difficulties in the workplace. We struggled over how to identify these individuals in the current article, given the complicated terminology and because of our desire to be inclusive. Therefore, on occasion, the terms trans individuals or trans community will be used interchangeably with transsexual. This is common language used by our clients in the community, and we perceive it to be more inclusive of all transgender and transsexual individuals.

Fundamental Information

The aforementioned definitions are important in the effort to use affirmative speech and to build a common language, as well as for general knowledge. Also inherent in understanding transsexual issues (both career and personal) are the Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders (SOC) written by The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association (Meyer et al., 2001). The SOC arc a set of minimum guidelines and prerequisites that help serve health care providers who work with transsexual individuals (e.g., physicians, clinicians, psychologists). For mental health care providers, the SOC's most paramount guideline is that prior to having sex reassignment surgery, a person must first commit, for a minimum of 12 months, to living full-time as a person of the sex that is genetically opposite of the sex assigned at birth. Full-time is defined as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This guideline allows transsexuals the opportunity to live as the sex that matches their identity while providing time to examine how effectively they will function in society. This period is known as the "real-life test" (RLT). The RLT is vital to a trans individual because she or he may not live the 12-month trial period in seclusion; she or he must live and function in society as the genetically opposite sex (Meyer et al., 2001). Inherent in this definition is that such individuals must function in a place of employment, and how this transition affects them and their place of employment is of utmost importance.

The aforementioned guidelines, although created for the purposes of supporting trans individuals, inherently pose complications for them in the workplace. We discuss these employment complications in the following section because there are clear dangers for individuals in this community while transitioning.

Career and Workplace Concerns

Transsexual individuals report a variety of emotions related to transitioning. Although many may report feeling excited about their RLT experience, many also express concern or fear at the prospect of transitioning at work (Boylan, 2003; Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Hoyman, 1999). These concerns may include deciding whether to transition at their present job, losing their current job because of their transition, losing job experience under their previous name, and experiencing prejudice and discrimination as well as coworkers' negative responses (Boylan, 2003; Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Hoyman, 1999; Walworth, 2003). Even the decision about which bathroom to use is a significant concern that trans individuals must learn to negotiate. These issues are specifically addressed to help counselors understand possible obstacles encountered in the workplace by trans individuals.

According to Walworth (2003), whether to transfer from one job to another or make a permanent career change should be the choice of the transitioning individual. Regardless of who makes the decision, there are definite benefits to be gained from finding new employment. Some bosses or companies may transfer transitioning individuals to another department as a way to help their coworkers adjust to the transition. For example, Hoyman (1999) stated, "They also wanted to offer me a new job in the school system. They thought it would be easier on me to start off working as a female with new coworkers who did not have a history or predetermined ideas" (p. 163). This option may be appealing because transsexual individuals can keep their benefits and seniority while still "starting fresh." Clearly, there arc benefits and drawbacks to each option (i.e., transitioning at current workplace or transitioning in a new place of employment), and helping clients make the best decision based on their unique circumstances and the consequences thereof may be vital to a healthy transition.

To date, no known empirical research has explored specific career concerns for transgender or transsexual individuals. Moreover, few articles that claim to discuss LGBT issues actually address any transgender concerns at all. Therefore, we relied on anecdotal evidence from autobiographies, non-empirically based sources, Internet sources, and our own clinical practice to further explore these career concerns. Most of the available information about career issues and experiences is from individuals who transitioned later in life and, despite the turmoil of dealing with confusion about their gender identity, were somehow able to write about their experience (e.g., Boylan, 2003; Green, 2004; Hoyman, 1999). Because few such resources are available, the following information may not apply to every individual in the trans community. In addition, because many gay men and lesbians also cross the boundaries of society's prescribed gender norms, relevant research with the lesbian and gay (LG) community may provide some insights into possible concerns felt by the transsexual community. It is not assumed that these two communities share identical experiences because we believe there arc differences between each group in the LGBT community; however, information gathered from LG research may be useful to the trans community because society's reactions to individuals who cross the boundaries of prescribed gender norms may be similar. Now that these parameters and limitations have been discussed, we focus on the implications for transitioning at the workplace.

Transitioning at the Workplace

Individuals who transition at their current place of employment will receive several benefits as well as encounter barriers. First, if they stay at their present job, they may have the potential for greater financial stability'. That is, they will most likely be able to maintain their current salary and keep the benefits typically accrued through longer term employment (Brown & Rounslev, 1996; Walworth, 2003). This is an attractive factor because the transition experience can be costly, and having a steady and reliable income becomes paramount (Brown & Rounslev, 1996). Although some components of transition may be covered by insurance (e.g., psychotherapy), many insurance companies will not pay the costs for most other procedures, such as sexual reassignment surgery (Walworth, 2003). It is estimated that because the costs of transition are typically not covered by insurance companies, individuals who fully transition pay approximately $50,000 to $80,000 for hormones, surgery, and other procedures (Walworth, 2003). Therefore, maintaining steady employment may take precedence over other concerns.

Furthermore, it may also be less stressful for individuals to remain at their current job because they will be around familiar colleagues and their job duties will most likely remain constant. Israel and Tarver (1997) suggested that individuals who are beginning to transition at work may find that sharing their transsexual status with close and trusted colleagues can help them build confidence and self-esteem. These individuals might also identify an ally to help throughout the process. However, it may he easier to go to management first, as Hoyman (1999) described:

  As I sat down, he [the boss] put me somewhat at ease and
  started off by saying he wanted mc to know up front that he
  and the Superintendent of Schools wanted to support my request and
  help make my transition as smooth as possible, (p. 164 )

Staying at one's current job may also be appealing because transition is a time of significant change and confusion; keeping as many factors constant as possible may serve as one aspect in individual's life that is stable and static (Walworth, 2003). Clients have reported to us that remaining in a current job helped them to feel anchored to something that was familiar and capable and competent when everything else was swirling in confusion around them. This was particularly the case for clients who struggled with the physical and emotional fluctuations caused by hormonal treatments during transition.

Although there are several positive aspects to transitioning in one's current place of employment, there are also many hurdles, For example, Brown and Rounsley (1996) stated that one hurdle in maintaining employment is that some coworkers may have a difficult time forgetting the appearance of the person as her or his former gender. Even if coworkers are well intentioned and supportive, they may accidentally use improper pronouns (e.g., refer to an FTM transsexual as "she") or refer to the transsexual individual by her or his previous name. For one MTF transsexual, accidentally being referred to by her previous gender evoked emotional pain. "When 1 speak to a stranger on the telephone and am read as a woman, 1 feel good. When I am addressed as 'sir,' however, I understand that people are being polite, but I still feel a little sadness and a sharp reminder of the insecurity of my gender identity" (Fraser, 2003, p. 216). Another hurdle was described by Fraser, who stated that transsexuals deal with issues of self-consciousness surrounding their identity in a way that is similar to the experience of adolescents; however, a significant difference is that adolescents usually have a great deal of peer support. A transsexual's work experience and her or his coworkers may be sources of support, strain, or possibly both.

Transitioning at a New Place of Employment

One of the main benefits of transitioning at a new place of employment is that individuals may not have to out themselves to their coworkers. Walworth (2003) stated that changing jobs may make it easier to fully incorporate all aspects of transition (i.e., behavioral and physical aspects) because there will be fewer expectations from coworkers. Of course, this may only apply to those individuals who easily pass as the other gender. It may be that individuals who do not easily pass will not be able to fully incorporate all aspects of their transition without having to deal with the preconceived notions of their coworkers. A parallel finding from research conducted with the LG community suggests that those who remained closeted about their sexual orientation at work reported a higher degree of role conflict and less job satisfaction (Day & Schoenradc, 1997). On the other hand, A. L. Ellis and Biggie (1996) found that gay men and lesbians who were not completely out at their jobs reported more satisfaction with their income when compared with participants who had disclosed their sexual orientation. This research may have implications for transsexual individuals as they negotiate their feelings and the need to disclose their gender identity. The dilemma is that self-disclosure may lead to greater overall personal satisfaction, but possibly at the expense of monetary losses (i.e., lower salary). Counselors are encouraged to support clients as they negotiate their level of "outness" (i.e., self-disclosure about one's sexual orientation and gender identity) and identify people who would be safe and supportive at work and to engage in a discussion that explores the cost-benefit analysis of being out at work.

Problematic Aspects of a Job Search

When deciding whether to maintain their current employment, transsexual individuals should consider three main problems potentially related to searching for a new job (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). First, they may lose work history. For recently transitioned or transitioning individuals, employment experience under their new name is most likely sparse, and competing in the job market as an adult without work experience is difficult, to say the least. Brown and Rounsley stated that this creates a convoluted situation because the usual way for individuals to obtain work is to have experience and to provide evidence of experience is to disclose their transsexual status to their employers. Understandably, this option is not preferred by many because people usually transition in a new employment setting in an attempt to avoid dealing with coworkers and management knowing about their transsexual identity. Discussing their needs, desires, and values will be critical as they make the decisions that are best for them.

A second factor involved in considering new employment is the interview process (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). Interviewing is arduous for most individuals, and maintaining an air of confidence is necessary. This can be especially difficult for individuals who are transitioning because they may be in the process of developing confidence and self-esteem; conveying an assertive and poised image to prospective employers may be challenging and, possibly, emotionally exhausting (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). Helping clients prepare with practice interviews and role-playing may help them build the confidence and poise necessary, as well as strengthen them emotionally to deal with potentially difficult situations. For example, Israel and Tarver (1997) suggested that transsexual individuals must learn how to effectively come out in the workplace, and this might include practicing their "disclosing skills" (p. 170). That is, transition is full of potentially difficult or uncomfortable situations, and helping transsexual clients work through and prepare for these scenarios may be a vital aspect of a successful transition.

A third factor for the client to consider when deciding whether to seek a new job is an ethical one. On many job applications, employers ask if applicants have had any experience under another name. This creates an ethical dilemma because if they answer honestly, they risk losing the job because of discrimination; however, if they do not report experience under a previous name, it is considered lying (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). At this point, it may be important for the counselor to act as an advocate by seeking out resources and more information about federal and individual state laws, as well as possibly pursuing legal advice on behalf of the client. Working with transsexual clients may be a new experience, and investigating the state and federal laws and learning how to advocate on their behalf may be vital to a successful therapeutic relationship as well as transition for the client.

Facing each of these obstacles will depend on situational and individual factors; some individuals may experience all of these obstacles, whereas others may not struggle with any. Regardless, it is important to consider and discuss the aspects that are relevant to their situations, as well as highlight concerns that they may not be fully aware of yet in their journey of transition. Helping transsexual clients become aware of the possible obstacles and options may not make their transition easy, but it will help them make thoughtful and well-considered plans as they begin their new journey.

Prejudice and Discrimination:

Dealing With Management and Coworkers

Individuals may have to transition at a different place of employment because of reasons beyond their control. That is, dealing with reactions from nonsupportive management and coworkers may be an enormous source of emotional or physical pain. Although this issue is outside the scope of the present article, there are autobiographies (e.g., Boylan, 2003; Hoyman, 1999) and some career resources (Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Sheehy, 2004) that discuss steps that transsexual employees can take that may help coworkers and management deal more positively with their transitioning employee. Nevertheless, transsexual employees will most likely encounter varying degrees of negative reactions, if not explicit prejudice, discrimination, or violence related to their transitioning (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). Our clients have discussed the pain and the fear that occur and cause them to feel unsafe in the workplace when coworkers become confused, frustrated, or angry about their transsexual coworker's transition and become verbally or physically threatening.

When considering the issues of prejudice and discrimination in the workplace, it is helpful to draw from the LG experience to make inferences about the transsexual experience. For example, Degges-White and Shoffner (2002) explained how lesbians may encounter discrimination before they even enter the job market in that their gender itself may be viewed by employers as a limit to their ability and thus eliminate them from consideration for the job. This, of course, is not always the case. Some women have benefited in predominately male fields because of the efforts of some industries to improve representation of a minority group (e.g., women, African Americans). Nonetheless, this circumstance may be especially difficult for MTF transsexuals who have heretofore benefited from the privilege of living as men. For example, an MTF may have learned skills more commonly associated with male gender roles; however, now she must find similar employment as a female. In this scenario, an MTF transsexual may be a well-trained and strong applicant for a position, but in her current gender presentation (i.e., female), she may be judged to be incapable of performing certain duties.

Research conducted with transsexual individuals about their experience in psychotherapy suggests that workplace conflicts and concerns are primary reasons for seeking therapy (Racblin, 2002). Furthermore, Croteau's {1996) meta-analysis of workplace experiences of lesbians and gay men indicated that discrimination is so pervasive that 25% to 66% of participants reported being discriminated against in the workplace. Informal forms of discrimination (e.g., verbal harassment and violence) were also reported by these participants. It is clear that the workplace may not always be a friendly and supportive environment for those whose gender presentation or sexual orientation fall outside the norm. Evidence from the LG community suggests that many experience some form of discrimination, and there is no reason to believe that transsexual and transgender individuals will escape the prejudice and/or discrimination that occurs in the workplace.

The "Bathroom Issue"

Even without empirical support, it may be safely assumed that most heterosexual nontranssexuals do not fret over which bathroom to use (of course there are some exceptions when parents bring opposite-sex children into a public bathroom). However, trans individuals may experience anxiety, discomfort, and fear on a daily basis when faced with the decision of which bathroom to use (Boylan, 2003; Hoyman, 1999; Walworth, 2003). Unfortunately, the "bathroom issue" in the workplace is usually not an easy obstacle to overcome {see Boylan, 2003; Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Hoyman, 1999; Israel & Tarver, 1997; Walworth, 2003). The complicated nature of transitioning can be summed up in this example of the day-to-day hurdle of the bathroom choice in that even the most seemingly mundane and ordinary behavior for heterosexual, nontranssexual individuals is an enormous source of anxiety and possible fear for transsexuals. Clearly, the bathroom issue represents one of the many difficult decisions for transsexuals, and it is experienced every day, several times a day. Although there are regulations and guidelines to help managers and companies deal with such issues (see Sheehy, 2004), the emotional weight and importance of this issue should not go unrecognized. In an attempt to help counselors and therapists work with transsexual individuals, we think it is important to consider the legal implications as well as the emotional and personal consequences of this issue.

According to Walworth (2003), a transsexual individual who is seeking care from a psychotherapist is legally allowed to use the bathroom facilities that are appropriate for her or his current gender role, regardless of whether genital surgery has occurred. Nevertheless, in practice, this is not always the case. Some companies may attempt to have preoperational transsexuals use the restroom assigned for their sex at birth until the surgery has been completed. This is problematic for several reasons. First, this may be an incredibly difficult and humiliating situation for individuals who are beginning to transition because their confidence and self-esteem may fluctuate or be lower because of their situation (Brown & Rounsley, 1996). Being forced to use a woman's restroom while transitioning into a man may require considerable confidence and a high level of self-esteem. Furthermore, requiring trans individuals to constantly subject themselves to situations in which they (and their coworkers) are uncomfortable cannot possibly result in a positive (or productive) work environment.

Second, there is no unanimously accepted single procedure that is "recognized as sex-transformative surgery" (Walworth, 2003, p. 83). That is to say, it may be unknown when the employee's gender presentation is altered enough to be considered the opposite gender. This issue may also be a source of concern for transsexuals who never completely transition. Affirmative transsexual resources suggest that the resolution of the restroom issue should not rest solely on the matter of an individual's genitalia, but also on the gender presentation of the employee (Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Walworth, 2003).

Israel and Tarver (1997) emphasized that, unfortunately, the decision regarding use of the bathroom rarely rests solely with the transitioning individual. They recommend that transsexual individuals work collaboratively with their employers to help decrease the amount of discomfort experienced by both the transsexual individual and the coworkers. In her autobiography, Hovman (1999) stated that she compromised with management by using a private bathroom while going through her RLT; however, it was understood by all parties (i.e., management and coworkers) that she would use the women's restroom after she fully transitioned. For more information about or examples of how this issue may be handled, see Boylan (2003), Hoyman (1999), and Walworth (2003). Regardless of what the final resolution of the conflict regarding bathroom use may be, it is important to explore this issue and brainstorm solutions that may mollify the employer while maintaining the client's dignity.

We have discussed the bathroom issue at some length because transitioning individuals devote much energy to it. In clinical practice, clients have indicated to us that the issue becomes a focus both for them and for their coworkers because it is a visible, unavoidable occurrence. Clients have reported that difficulties with bathroom protocol is a measure of coworkers1 attitudes as well as their own comfort level. In counseling sessions, it is often the case that bathroom concerns provide counselors with a specific means to focus on underlying fear, anxiety, and anger in their clients.

Literature Critique

The current state of the psychological literature regarding transsexual issues is, in a word, inadequate. Although research has shown that career concerns are a common issue addressed in psychotherapy (Rachlin, 2002), there are no known published empirical studies that evaluate workplace issues for transsexual individuals or provide career interventions to meet their specific needs. In fact, Chung (2003) has explicitly stated that transsexual career concerns deserve more attention because there are no resources for therapists or theoretical guides to help trans individuals. There are, however, manuals available for managers who employ transsexual individuals (see, for example, Sheehy, 2004; Walworth, 2003) and book chapters that provide an overview of how to provide affirmative psychotherapy and counseling with transsexual individuals (e.g., Korrell & Lorah, 2007). There also seems to be a growing body of literature that is contributing to the general knowledge about transsexual individuals and their experiences (see Brown & Rounsley, 1996; Denny, 1998; Israel & Tarver, 1997; MacKenzie, 1994); yet, it is clear that this body lacks depth, comprehensiveness, and an empirical foundation.

Recommendations for Counselors

According to Carroll, Gilroy, and Ryan (2002), few counselors acquire in-depth training in trans issues. Therefore, the first step in working with transsexual individuals is to build a foundation of knowledge about issues facing this community. This includes learning about transsexual terminology, the medical implications of transitioning surgery (e.g., hormones, sex-reassignment surgery, and electrolysis), and transsexual history and politics and becoming familiar with support networks for this population. For a more in-depth discussion of general counseling skills, interventions, and considerations for therapists working with transsexual clients in individual psychotherapy, see Carroll et al. (2002), Korrell and Lorah (2007), and Mostade (2006). A second step may be to help trans individuals identify supportive individuals at work who may help them transition. Furthermore, because it is more likely that a counselor will provide services to family members or friends of trans individuals, we recommend Zamboni (2006) and Cohen, Padilla, and Aravena (2006) for a more complete discussion of issues affecting the loved ones of these clients.

To focus more specifically on career concerns, we identified four primary competency components that counselors should possess or work toward to adequately address the needs of transsexual clients. First, counselors should become familiar with organizations and businesses that include gender identity in their nondiscrimination policies. Such information can be found at the HRC Web site (www.hrc.org) and the online transsexual resource Transgender at Work (TAW; 2001), State and federal laws as well as company policy may have a direct influence on whether (or how) trans individuals transition in the workplace. These factors also have implications for their ability to maintain employment as well as for their psychological well-being.

Second, counselors should become familiar with aspects of the transitioning experience and how their clients may live out this experience in the workplace. Explicit steps for helping individuals successfully transition are also available (see Brown & Rounslev, 1996; Horton, 2001; Israel & Tarver, 1997; Walworth, 2003; Winfeld, 2005). In addition to outlining steps for a successful transition, HRC (Sheeny, 2004) has provided a manual for managers on how to work affirmatively and effectively with transsexual employees. This manual outlines how management can provide information and training for coworkers in an attempt to reduce prejudice and discrimination, as well as improve the experience of transsexual individuals. Transsexual clients who provide this manual to managers and employers may be helping their place of employment do a better job of meeting their needs as employees. Furthermore, Hash and Ceperich (2006) provided a helpful chapter to address LGBT employment-related concerns such as identity management and dealing with unsupportive benefits and policies, as well as how professionals can intervene for clients on various levels (e.g., individual and organizational levels). Maintaining familiarity with current resources and manuals focused on workplace issues is vital to providing the best care for transsexual clients.

Our third competency component deals specifically with career testing. As previously discussed, trans individuals may continue with their previous career choice or decide to explore other career options. As with most clients, career assessments may be an important early step in their career exploration. Although useful, we caution against the universal application of such assessments with trans individuals because research with the lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGR) community suggests that heterosexist bias may exist in career assessment (e.g., Strong Interest Inventory [SII]; Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994; see also Chernin, Holden, & Chandler, 1997). We first recommend that counselors use only those assessments that have demonstrated competence. Additionally, we posit that unbiased assessments can only be the product of counselors who have evaluated, explored, and worked to identify their own personal and professional stereotypes and biases and who use this knowledge to apply all career assessments in a culturally sensitive manner.

Our fourth competency component concerns the counselor's knowledge and applications of sexual identity management models for the workplace. Individuals in the LGBT community often share similar experiences of prejudice and discrimination in the workplace; however, each group does face unique challenges in its identity management (for review, see Fassinger & Arscneau, 2007). Because of the dearth of research and theory development about unique trans identity management issues in the workplace, we recommend that counselors become familiar with those models available for LGB clients and explore the appropriateness of such models for their trans clients. Recent models include the Workplace Sexual Identity Management model (see Lidderdale, Croteau, Anderson, Tovar-Murray, & Davis, 2007), which incorporates personal traits and past experiences as well as environmental and cultural influences on career goals, choices, and barriers as these issues apply to the LGBT population. Using such models may help counselors understand how trans individuals can negotiate, choose, and implement strategies for managing their sexual identity. Understanding such models may also be fruitful in understanding career assessment and interventions.

Future Research

With the inadequate state of the current literature related to the transsexual community, there are several avenues for future research. First, as previously stated, we recognize the absence of empirical research that explicates and validates specific career interventions for trans individuals; nevertheless, we also recognize that critically reviewing the scarce literature that is available is a necessary step in providing a foundation for such empirical research to begin. To that end, we advocate that future research begin developing career counseling theories and/or models that uniquely address issues, obstacles, and experiences specifically as they relate to the transsexual community. Second, in a related vein, it is important to explore whether, and to what degree, certain existing theories are applicable to individuals in the transsexual community. Third, it would also be helpful to use the existing literature as a framework from which to begin exploring specific career interventions and assessments (e.g., SI1, Harmon et al., 1994) in the effort to improve career services for trans individuals. Fourth, we encourage both the qualitative and the quantitative exploration of trans career issues (e.g., workplace discrimination during transitioning, utility of career assessments with trans individuals) because each research method lends itself to different, yet equally important, information.

Conclusions

The research and anecdotal evidence presented in this article serve as a foundation to understand why career issues and workplace considerations are paramount for transsexual individuals. The emotional weight of dealing with the transition, negotiating how to transition in the workplace, and encountering prejudice and discrimination arc all factors that may adversely affect career decisions for individuals in the trans community. Our hopes are that increased awareness of the issues will lead to affirmative career counseling, better development and use of assessments, and increased research as these counselors continue to work more frequently with clients in the transsexual community.

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Shanti M. Pepper, Department of Counselor Education, Counseling Psychology, and Rehabilitation Services; Peggy Lorah, Center for "Women Students; both at The Pennsylvania State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Shanti M. Pepper, Department of 'Counselor Education, Counseling Psychology, and Rehabilitation Services, College of Education. The Pennsylvania State University, 327 CEDAR Building. University Park, PA 16802 (e-mail: [e-mail]).