Career development of people with developmental disabilities: an ecological model.

The presence of a developmental disability has the potential to influence career development. The combination of the onset of disability during the formative years and the developmental nature of career development (see e.g., Super, 1990; Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986) can lead to a variety of impediments. However, negative effects on career development are, by no means, a necessary consequence of disability.

The term, developmental disabilities, includes a wide range of conditions. Specifically, it refers to a severe, chronic physical or mental disability manifested before the age of twenty-two that results in substantial functional limitations in three or more areas of major life activity (B. Gearheart, Mullen, & C. Gearheart, 1993). Although the term is often used synonymously with mental retardation, it actually includes a wide range of severe physical disabilities that occur without cognitive impairment.

Learning may or may not be impeded by a developmental disability. When it is, learners may have some or all of the following characteristics: slower learning rate; fewer learned skills during school; better learning with concrete as opposed to abstract instruction; and deficits in language and communication, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral control. Incidental learning cannot be assumed, and skill generalization and maintenance problems are common (Henley, Ramsey, & Algozzine, 1993; Snell, 1987).

The combination of the heterogeneity of individuals with developmental disabilities (B. Gearheart et al., 1993) and the dynamic, individual nature of career development (see e.g., Lent & Hackett, 1994; Vondracek et al., 1986) means that the presence of a developmental disability cannot predict either career development or needed interventions. Rehabilitation professionals must understand the process of career development and the potential influences of developmental disabilities. To this end, we will explore the career development of people with developmental disabilities through discussion of the following topics: (a) an ecological approach to career development and disability, and (b) career related interventions for people with developmental disabilities.

An Ecological Approach to Career Development and Disability

There is no definitive theory of career development and disability nor should there be. "Career development is, for most people, a lifelong process of getting ready to choose, choosing, and typically continuing to make choices from among the many occupations available in our society" (Brown & Brooks, 1984, p. ix). It is a process that depends very much on the heterogeneity of individuals and is influenced by the context in which they live (Szymanski, Hershenson, Enright, & Ettinger, in press; Vondracek & Fouad, 1994). Therefore, disability, in and of itself, does not determine career development.

Nonetheless, people with disabilities are known to have a much higher rate of unemployment than people without disabilities (Taylor, 1994). Disability, therefore, is a risk factor that should be carefully considered in assisting individuals with developmental disabilities in career planning and preparation. Before examining the potential influences of disability on career development, we will provide an overview of career development and some resulting caveats.

Career Development

There are a multitude of career development theories within counseling (see e.g., Brown, Brooks, & Associates, 1990; Osipow, 1983) and other related disciplines. In fact, one of the major challenges to understanding career theory results from its situation between academic disciplines (Schein, 1986). This problem is further compounded when "each discipline happily develops its own concepts but does not feel obligated to connect them with the concepts that flow from other disciplines" (Schein, 1986, pp. 315-316).

Recently, the counseling and vocational theorists have considered theory convergence (see Savickas & Lent, 1994a). Although some convergence has occurred naturally (Osipow, 1994; Super, 1994), many believe that it should not be forced (see e.g., Holland, 1994; Osipow, 1994). Current theories have different audiences (Holland, 1994) and address diverse aspects of the vocational behavior (Dawis, 1994; Krumboltz, 1994). "Furthermore, the results of research studies acquire deeper meaning when they are viewed from the perspectives of two or more theories" (Super cited in Savickas & Lent, 1994b, p. 2).

Despite its scholarly richness, the current theoretical mosaic presents challenges in applying theories to practice. For that reason, Szymanski, Hershenson, Enright, and Ettinger (in press) introduced a conceptual model that integrates current theories and guides application to people with and without disabilities. According to Szymanski et al., a composite view of current career theories suggests that career development is determined by the dynamic interaction of the individual, contextual, mediating, environmental, and output factors described in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 1. The model is ecological because, like previous ecological models in rehabilitation (see e.g., Szymanski, Dunn, & Parker, 1989) and other disciplines, it follows the Lewinian tradition of emphasizing the dynamic interaction of individuals and their environments.

Applications to People with Developmental Disabilities

Over the years, there has been considerable discussion about the applicability of career theories to people with disabilities. On the one hand, Conte (1983), Curnow (1989), and Hershenson and Szymanski (1992) have pointed to the limitations of some theories in application to people with disabilities. On the other hand, Hershenson (1981); McCarthy (1986); Victor, McCarthy, and Palmer (1986); and Szymanski, Turner, and Hershenson (1992) have discussed specific applications drawn from one or more theoretical approaches.

Most recently, Szymanski, Hershenson, Enright, and Ettinger (in press) have posited that the combination of the heterogeneity of individuals with disabilities and the dynamic nature of career development mitigates against the direct applicability of career development theories. Essentially, no theory is fully applicable, and most theories are not completely inapplicable. Rather, individual career interventions for people with disabilities must be determined on the basis of understanding the individual and the nature of career development. With this caveat in mind, we list some general principles of career development and explain their potential implications for people with developmental disabilities.

1. Career development is a developmental process (Super, 1990). Work personality forms in the pre-school years and is influenced by early school experiences. Similarly, work competencies, which are skills and habits associated with work, form during the school years (Hershenson, 1981). Play and chores can contribute to the development of work personality and work competencies (Szymanski, 1994). Because developmental disabilities are often present during critical times of development, they may present risk factors (Anastasiow, 1986). For example, opportunities for play with peers without disabilities might be restricted, or children might not be held responsible for chores.

2. Interests are learned (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1990). The presence of a disability during critical developmental years may limit learning experiences that contribute to interest development. For example, mobility limitations might impede visits to stores or accompanying a parent to work. Similarly, problems in learning or behavior might limit the vicarious benefits gained from exposure to working role models and work settings. It is possible, although not necessary, that a developmental disability could lessen opportunities or the impact of learning experiences thus negatively influencing interest development. As a result, people with developmental disabilities may exhibit flat interest profiles or have a limited repertoire from which to choose among various career alternatives.

3. Career development is influenced by the context in which people live (Vondracek & Schulenberg, 1992). Contextual factors include, but are not limited to, family, education, and socioeconomic status. Family expectations, are believed to be critical to the development of work personality (see e.g., Hershenson, 1981; Victor et al., 1986). Educational opportunities (e.g., the passage of special education legislation) are also potentially influential. Not only can the time someone completed school (e.g., pre- or post-1975 and IDEA) be influential but so, too, can local educational policies, which affect the availability of critical educational and vocational opportunities. Similarly, socioeconomic status is known to impact opportunity structure and subsequent employment status (see e.g., Haveman & Wolfe, 1994; Rothman, 1987). Although these factors are applicable to all individuals, they may be particularly potent for people with developmental disabilities by compounding or mitigating the risk factors associated with the disability.

Table 1

Career Development Factors and Interventions

Factor and Definition                 Interventions

Individual Factors

Individual factors are physical       Active consumer involvement in
and psychological attributes          assessment of abilities,
(e.g., gender; race; physical and     interests, and values
mental abilities, including work
competencies; predispositions and     Instruction in specific skills
limitations; interests; needs;
values; the aspect of disability      Assistive technology
that is a personal attribute).

Context Factors

Contextual factors are those          Chores at home and school
aspects of an individual's
situation that are external to
the person (e.g.,                     Early family involvement
socioeconomic status; family;         in planning
education; non-normative
influences such as war or natural     Exposure to work role morals
disasters; relevant legislation;
financial disincentives).             Guided work experiences

                                      Consideration of financial
                                      needs in career planning

Mediating Factors

Mediating factors are three
interrelated groups of factors
that affect the relationship of
persons and environments.

  Individual mediating factors        Success experiences, Job Club
  are habits or behavior patterns
  and personal beliefs about          Career workshops or classes
  abilities and characteristics
  (e.g., self-concept, work           Psychoeducational programs
  personality, self-efficacy,
  task approach skills, career        Career portfolios
  maturity, career decisiveness,
  adjustment to disability).          Individual counseling

  Social mediating factors are        Understanding and considering
  cultural or structural beliefs      cultural and religious beliefs
  that affect interactions of         in planning
  individuals and environments
  (e.g., culture, religious           Advocating for access and
  beliefs, gender or disability       opportunities
  role socialization,
  discrimination, stereotypes,        Educating the public about
  lack of physical                    the work ability of people
  access, limited opportunity         with developmental
  structures, and attitudes           disabilities
  toward persons with disabilities.

  Environmental mediating factors     Evaluating consumers beliefs
  are beliefs about the environment   about potential environments
  that effect individual-             (e.g., beliefs about what
  environment interaction             happens or what is expected
  (e.g., outcome                      in work) and providing
  expectations, world-view            correcting information
  generalizations).                   if needed.

Work Environment Factors

Work environment factors describe     Job analysis including
aspects of the work environment       consideration of
(e.g., the types of individuals       organizational culture and
who work in the environments,         reinforcement systems
task requirements, reinforcement
systems,organizational culture,       Job restructuring
access of the work environment,       Job accommodation
access to work tasks, job             Development and use of natural
accommodation).                       supports

Output Factors

Output factors are the behaviors      Job coaching, individual
or states that result from the        counseling
interactions of groups of the other   Adjustment of reinforcements
factors (e.g., persistence,
satisfaction, satisfactoriness,       Stress reduction techniques
individual and organizational
productivity, competitiveness).       Change to another job

Note. Content adapted from "Career Development Theories, Constructs,
and Research: Implications for People with Disabilities," by E. M.
Szymanski, D. B. Hershenson, M. S. Enright, and J. M. Ettinger, in
press, in E. M. Szymanski and R. M. Parker (Eds.), Work and
Disability: Issues and Strategies in Career Development and Job
Placement. Copyright by Pro-Ed. Adapted with permission.

4. Career development is mediated by individual beliefs. Lent and Hackett (1994) have proposed that individual beliefs about career development (e.g., self-efficacy, self-concept, culturally based beliefs about work and work roles) are important contributors to outcome in the general population. It is reasonable to hypothesize that such beliefs are important in the lives of people with developmental disabilities. In fact, people with developmental disabilities may be at risk for lowered beliefs about their abilities. For example, Biller (1988) demonstrated that college students with learning disabilities had lower levels of career maturity than comparable students without disabilities. Interestingly, work situations may be related to individual beliefs. Wehmeyer (1994) found that people with developmental disabilities in competitive employment demonstrated more internal locus of control than similar individuals in sheltered employment.

5. Career development is mediated by societal beliefs. Fitzgerald and Betz (1994) have called attention to the role that such beliefs as prejudice, discrimination, and gender role stereotypes may play in individual career development. The advances in supported employment of the past two decades (see e.g., Wehman & Moon, 1988; Rusch, 1990) provide an excellent example of this factor. Research and practice over the last 20 years appear to have increased the expectations of professionals, parents, and society regarding the employment potential of people with mental retardation and other severe disabilities. Nonetheless, other societal beliefs (e.g., prejudice) may limit opportunities for people with developmental disabilities, especially those of diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds.

6. Environments influence career development. The importance of environmental influence (e.g., the labor market, employment practices) in career development and rehabilitation planning was recognized in Super's (1990) archway model of career development and in ecological approaches to rehabilitation (see e.g., Szymanski et al., 1989). It is hoped that some environmental barriers have been lessened with the implementation of the Americans with Disabilities Act. For example, inaccessible buildings have limited the exposure of persons with mobility impairments to some work environments. Similarly, the inclusion of marginal functions (i.e., those not absolutely necessary to the position) in job descriptions may have excluded many otherwise qualified individuals with disabilities from employment.

7. Career development is a life-long process (Super, 1990). People change jobs and careers throughout their lifetime. The same is true for people with developmental disabilities. In fact, a follow up study of 302 supported employees showed that only 29.8% had stayed in the initial job for two years, while 19.2% had moved on to other jobs, 31.8% were out of work and had returned to referral status, 15% had been discharged as unemployed and inappropriate for supported employment, and 4.2% were unemployed but no longer needed support (Shafer, Banks, & Kregel, 1991). However, circumstances associated with the disability (e.g., need for steady health care coverage, day program requirements of residential situations) may make it difficult for individuals to move from less to more satisfying jobs (Szymanski, Johnston-Rodriguez, Millington, Rodriguez, & Lagergren, 1995).

Career Related Interventions for People with Developmental Disabilities

In addition to being developmental, career development is also a cognitive process. It involves "self-definition, readiness, decision making, choice and commitment, and implementation" (Phillips, 1992, p. 513). Educational and rehabilitation interventions target various portions of this process. Following a brief discussion of interventions, we present a framework for planning.

Interventions

A wide range of career interventions are available for the general population (see e.g., Herr & Cramer, 1992). Meta-analytic research has shown that some of these interventions, including workshops, career classes, and individual counseling, are effective (Oliver & Spokane, 1988). For a more complete discussion of career interventions for people with disabilities see Szymanski, Hershenson, Ettinger, and Enright (in press). Interventions can focus on the family, schools, or adult service settings.

Families play important roles in career development (Super, 1990; Young & Friesan, 1992). This may be particularly important for people with disabilities. For example, Victor et al. (1986) found that frequency of doing chores in childhood was positively associated with adult employment status for people with early onset physical disabilities.

Education provides critical skills and opportunities for career development. Special education interventions related to career development include instruction in a wide range of topics related to participation in adult roles. Although school to work transition is often a focal point for career development interventions, it is important to recognize that, because career development is life-long, interventions can occur throughout the lifespan (Szymanski, 1994).

Functional curriculum, a cornerstone of special education, "prepares students for adult living and includes independent living, leisure, health and grooming, social skills, communication skills, vocational preparation and skill training, and generalizable skills, as well as community involvement through age appropriate content (Boyer-Stephens & Kearns, 1988, p. 13)." Recently, Michaels recommended expanding curricular attention to include task approach and problem solving skills, self-efficacy skills (e.g., self-monitoring), and social skills as critical fundamental skills for all students (Michaels, 1994). Similarly, instruction in self-determination has been a recent emphasis in transition curricula. Self-determination refers to the attitudes and abilities required to act as the primary causal agent in one's life and to make choices regarding one's actions free from undue external influence or interference. It involves autonomy (acting according to one's own priorities or principles), self-actualization (the full development of one's unique talents and potentials) and self-regulation (cognitive or self-controlled mediation of one's behavior)" (Wehmeyer, 1992, p. 305).

Rehabilitation has incorporated instructional technologies to extend work opportunities to people with severe disabilities. For example, supported employment, which provides job placement and instruction in natural work settings (see e.g., Rusch, 1990; Wehman & Moon, 1988). Other rehabilitation strategies that include instruction are work adjustment, work hardening, and job coaching (Hanley-Maxwell, Bordieri, & Merz, in press).

The broad interventions of assessment and individual career planning are key strategies in the rehabilitation process (Parker & Schaller, in press; Rubin & Roessler, 1995). In addition, mentoring (Powers, Sowers, & Stevens, 1995), work experience (Wenkman, 1994), and a psycho-educational program, which focused on work identity, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept (Ericson & Riordan, 1993), have been effectively used with young adults with various types of severe disabilities.

Consumer choice is an important component of interventions and one that can easily be compromised with people with developmental disabilities (Hagner & Salomone, 1989). In supported employment, West and Parent (1992) have highlighted the importance of the consumer's role in choosing an occupation, agency and training staff, training and support methods, and whether to remain in a particular job. In order to facilitate the ability of people with developmental disabilities to make informed choices in their own career development, Hagner and Salomone have recommended consideration of "(a) guided job experiences, (b) decision-making training, (c) technical assistance within the decision-making process, and (d) longitudinal career services" (p. 155).

Framework for Planning Interventions

There are a wide range of interventions that could be used to enhance the career development of people with developmental disabilities. The choice of these interventions depends on individual characteristics, the context in which people live or have lived, belief structures, potential environments, and evidenced work outcome behaviors. Table 1 lists potential interventions according to these career development factors. In planning interventions, it is vitally important to consider the cognitive nature of the process. Career development "is not something that can be done to or for a client. Rather, it is a process in which consumers must become active, informed participants who learn and control a planning process that they use for short- and long-term career development" (Szymanski, Hershenson, Ettinger, & Enright, in press). In addition, the lifelong, developmental nature of the process means that "unless we plan to work with an increasingly dependent client again and again across the decades, our professional responsibility is to assure that each person learns the [career planning] process" (Mastie, 1994, p. 37).

In addition to the relevant professional codes of ethics, some basic principles should guide choice and delivery of interventions. Generally, interventions should (a) promote independence or interdependence, (b) be maximally under the control of the consumer, (c) be least intrusive, and (d) be most natural for the setting (Parker, Szymanski, & Hanley-Maxwell, 1989). In addition, interventions must be planned with consideration of cultural values relating to relating to career decision making and work roles (see e.g., Pederson, 1994; Sue & Sue, 1990). For example, independence or independent decision making may conflict with values of more collective cultures.

Conclusion

Career development is personal development. It encompasses the full spectrum of life roles and extends through the lifetime. In addition, it is related to the context in which one lives, including opportunity structures.

People with developmental disabilities are at risk for limited access to training and the labor market. Rehabilitation professionals can play important roles in lowering this risk through active involvement of consumers in assessment and career planning. However, it is critically important that all interventions be delivered with the goal of empowering the individual for lifelong career development.

Acknowledgement

Preparation of this manuscript was supported, in part, by Grant H133B30052 from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research of the U.S. Department of Education. However, the views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the funding agency.

References

Anastasiow, N., J. (1986). Development and disability: A psychobiological analysis for special educators. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Biller, E. F. (1988). Career decision making attitudes of college students with learning disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 6(4), 14-20.

Boyer-Stephens, A., & Kearns, D. (1988). Functional curriculum for transition. Journal of Vocational Special Needs Education, 11(1), 13-18.

Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (1984). Preface. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates, Career choice and development: Applying contemporary theories to practice (pp. ix-xii). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brown, D., Brooks, L., & Associates. (1990). Career choice and development (2nd. ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Conte, L. (1983). Vocational development theories and the disabled person: Oversight or deliberate omission. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 26, 316-328.

Curnow, T. C. (1989). Vocational development of persons with disability. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 37, 269-278.

Dawis, R. V. (1994). The theory of work adjustment as convergent theory. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.) Convergence in career development theories: Implications for science and practice (pp. 33-43). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Ericson, G. D., & Riordan, R. J. (1993). Effects of a psychosocial and vocational intervention on the rehabilitation potential of young adults with end-stage renal disease. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 37, 146-162.

Fitzgerald, L. F., & Betz, N. E. (1994). Career development in cultural context: The role of gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in career development theories: Implications for science and practice (pp. 103-117). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Gearheart, B., Mullen, R., & Gearheart, C. (1993). Exceptional individuals: An introduction. Pacific Grove, CA: Brookes/Cole.

Hagner, D., & Salomone, P. R. (1989). Issues in career decision making for workers with developmental disabilities. Career Development Quarterly, 38, 148-159.

Hanley-Maxwell, C., Bordieri, J., & Merz, M.A. (in press). Supporting placement in E. M. Szymanski & R. M. Parker (Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in career development and job placement. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Haveman, R., & Wolfe, B. (1994). Succeeding generations: On the effects of the investment in children. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.

Henley, M., Ramsey, R., & Algozzine, R. (1993). Characteristics of and strategies for teaching students with mild disabilities. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Herr, E. L., & Cramer, S. H. (1992). Career guidance and counseling through the lifespan: Systematic approaches (4th. ed.). New York: Harper Collins.

Hershenson, D. B. (1981). Work adjustment, disability, and the three r's of vocational rehabilitation: A conceptual model. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 25, 91-97.

Hershenson, D., & Szymanski, E. M. (1992). Career development of people with disabilities. In R. M. Parker & E. M. Szymanski (Eds.), Rehabilitation counseling: Basics and beyond (2nd ed.; pp. 273-303). Austin: Pro-Ed.

Krumboltz, J. D. (1994). Improving career development theory from a social learning perspective. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.) Convergence in career development theories: Implications for science and practice (pp. 9-31). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Lent, R. W., & Hackett, G. (1994). Sociocognitive mechanisms of personal agency in career development: Pan theoretical prospects. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in career development: Implications for science and practice (pp. 77-101). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Mastie, M. M. (1994). Using assessment instruments in career counseling: Career assessment as compass, credential, process and empowerment. In J. T. Kapes, M. M. Mastic, & E. A., Whitfield (Eds.), A counselor's guide to career assessment instruments (3rd. ed., pp. 31-40). Alexandria, VA: The National Career Development Association.

McCarthy, H. (1986). Making it in able-bodied America: Career development in young adults with disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation, 17(4), 30-38.

Michaels, C. A. (1994). Transition strategies for persons with learning disabilities. San Diego, CA: Singular.

Mitchell, L. K., & Krumboltz, J. D. (1990). Social learning approach to career decision making: Krumboltz's theory. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates, Career choice and development: Applying contemporary theories to practice (2nd. ed; pp. 145-196). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Oliver, L. W., & Spokane, A. R. (1988). Career-intervention outcome: What contributes to client gain? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 447-462.

Osipow, S. H. (1983). Theories of career development (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Parker, R. M., & Schaller, J. L. (in press). Issues in vocational assessment and disability. In E. M. Szymanski & R. M. Parker (Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in career development and job placement. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Parker, R. M., Szymanski, E. M., & Hanley-Maxwell, C. (1989). Ecological assessment in supported employment. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 20(3), 26-33.

Pederson, P. (1994). A handbook for developing multicultural awareness (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association Press.

Phillips, S. D. (1992). Career counseling: Choice and implementation. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (2nd. ed.; pp. 513-547). New York: Wiley.

Powers, L., E., Sowers, J., & Stevens, T. (1995). An exploratory, randomized study of the impact of mentoring on the self-efficacy and community-based knowledge of adolescents with severe physical challenges. Journal of Rehabilitation, 61(1), 33-41.

Rothman, R. A. (1987). Working: Sociological perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Rubin, S. E., & Roessler, R. T. (1995). The foundations of the vocational rehabilitation process (4th ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Rusch, F. R. (Ed.). (1990). Supported employment: Models, methods, and issues. Sycamore, IL: Sycamore.

Savickas, M. L., & Lent, R. W. (Eds.). (1994a). Convergence in career development theories: Implications for science and practice. Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Savickas, M. L., & Lent, R. W. (1994b). Introduction: a convergence project for career psychology. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.) Convergence in career development theories: Implications for science and practice (pp. 1-6). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Shafer, M. S., Banks, P. D., & Kregel, J. (1991). Employment retention and career movement among individuals with mental retardation working in supported employment. Mental Retardation, 29, 103-110.

Schein, E. H. (1986). A critical look at current career development theory and research. In D. T. Hall & Associates, Career development in organizations (pp. 310-331). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Snell, M. E. (1987). Systematic instruction of persons with severe handicaps, (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.

Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1990). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.

Super, D. E. (1990). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates, Career choice and development: Applying contemporary theories to practice (2nd. ed; pp. 197-261). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Szymanski, E. M. (1994). Transition: Life-span, life-space considerations for empowerment. Exceptional Children, 60, 402-410.

Szymanski, E. M., Dunn, C., & Parker, R. M. (1989). Rehabilitation of persons with learning disabilities: An ecological framework. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 33, 38-53.

Szymanski, E. M., Hershenson, D. B., Enright, M. S., & Ettinger, J. (in press). Career development theories, constructs, and research: Implications for people with disabilities. In E. M. Szymanski & R. M. Parker (Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in carver development and job placement. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Szymanski, E. M., Hershenson, D. B., Ettinger, J., & Enright, M. S. (in press). Career development interventions for people with disabilities. In E. M. Szymanski & R. M. Parker (Eds.), Work and disability: Issues and strategies in career development and job placement. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Szymanski, E. M., Johnston-Rodriguez, S., Millington, M. J., Rodriguez, B. H., & Lagergren, J. (1995). The paradoxical nature of disability services: Illustrations from supported employment and implications for rehabilitation counseling. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 26(2), 17-22.

Szymanski, E. M., Turner, K. D., & Hershenson, D. (1992). Career development of people with disabilities: Theoretical perspectives. In F. R. Rusch, L. DeStefano, J. Chadsey-Rusch, L. A. Phelps, & E. M. Szymanski (Eds.), Transition from school to adult life: Models, linkages, and policy (pp. 391-406). Sycamore, IL: Sycamore.

Taylor, H. (1994, May). N.O.D. Survey of Americans with disabilities: Employment related highlights. [special advertising section]. Business Week.

Victor, J., McCarthy, H., & Palmer, J. T. (1986). Career development of physically disabled youth, Annual Review of Rehabilitation, 5, 97-150.

Vondracek, F. W., & Fouad, N. A. (1994). Developmental contextualism: An integrative framework for theory and practice. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in career development: Implications for science and practice (pp. 207-214). Palo Alto, CA: CPP.

Vondracek, F. W., Lerner, R. M., & Schulenberg, J. E. (1986). Career development: A life-span developmental approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Vondracek, F. W., & Schulenberg, J. (1992). Counseling for normative and nonnormative influences on career development. Career Development Quarterly, 40, 291-301.

Wehman, P., & Moon, M. S. (Eds.). (1988). Vocational rehabilitation and supported employment. Baltimore, MD: Paul S. Brookes.

Wehmeyer, M. L. (1992). Self-determination and the education of students with mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 303-314.

Wehmeyer, M. L. (1994). Employment status and perceptions of control of adults with cognitive and developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 15, 119-131.

Wenkman, J. (1994). The effect of work experience on career decisiveness of college students with disabilities. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin - Madison.

West, M. D., & Parent, W. S. (1992). Consumer choice and empowerment in supported employment services: Issues and strategies. Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 17, 47-52.

Young, R. A., & Friesen, J. D. (1992). The intentions of parents in influencing the career development of their children. Career Development Quarterly, 40, 198-207.

Edna Mora Szymanski, Ph.D., University of Wisconsin - Madison, Department of Rehabilitation Psychology and Special Education, 432 N. Murray Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706.