Career counseling in the future: constructing, collaborating, advocating.

   Helping individuals adapt to changing environments is a major
   strength of career development practice. Additional strengths are a
   solid theoretical framework, effective assessment tools and
   technology, and a clear professional identity. Areas of weakness
   include the lack of integration of contextual factors into career
   intervention strategies, poor communication between practitioners and
   researchers, insufficient attention to underserved populations, and
   inadequate training in counselor education programs. Changes in the
   economy and in social structures require that people possess adaptive
   skills; therefore, career counselors should expand their efforts to
   help clients construct their lives, collaborate with other
   professionals, and advocate for clients.

In writing this article, I found that sometimes it is a challenge to clearly distinguish strength from weakness. Depending on one's perspective, strength can also mean weakness. For instance, the career development of members of minority groups has been viewed as understudied in the literature, but more attention has been paid to this area in the last decade (Arbona, 2000; Swanson & Parcover, 1998). Weakness, if addressed properly, can become strength, and similarly, strength can become weakness if not handled appropriately.

Internal Strength

The greatest strength of career counseling lies in its origin and evolution a reaction to the social and economic changes that occurred in the late nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries. The mission of career development practice from its birth to today has never shifted from its focus on helping individuals adjust well to their changing environments. The practice of vocational guidance was launched to address social and psychological needs at the beginning of the twentieth century. As Herr (2001) wrote,

   vocational or career guidance and counseling and other career
   development practice have been seen as making access to education and
   training opportunities; educational reform; economic efficiency;
   creating human capital; matching persons and occupational
   opportunities; rehabilitating those on the margins of society by
   providing support and direction to their career development; and
   helping persons find dignity, purpose in, and adjustment to work. (p.
   202)

Career counseling has been responsive to the needs of people in a changing society in the form of educational reform (e.g., integrating career education into school curriculum), development and revision of theories (e.g., Social Cognitive Career Theory [Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994]; Super's life-span and life-space theory [Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996]), and implementation of legislation advocating career guidance (e.g., the School-to Work-Opportunities Act of 1994).

A variety of career development theories have provided solid theoretical framework for the practice of career counseling. Since Parsons's (1909) pioneering work of matching people's traits with work conditions, career development theories have evolved to an impressive breadth and depth, including approaches that concentrate on person-environment fit (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Holland, 1985), development (L. S. Gottfredson, 1996; Super et al., 1996), social cognitive learning (Krumboltz, 1996; Lent et al., 1994), career decision-making model (Tiedeman & O'Hara, 1963), and life roles (Brown, 1996; Hansen, 1997). Practitioners more readily accept some theories because they offer practical guidance, whereas others contribute significantly to the conceptual underpinnings of the field (Lent, 2001). Career development theories have definitely advanced and enriched the strategies and methods for helping people deal with career concerns.

Similarly, career counseling practice has enjoyed a long-standing history of using assessments to assist the career intervention process. The field can be proud of its richness in vocational assessment: vocational interests, occupational values, career maturity, career identity, career decision making, and career self-efficacy (Walsh & Srsic, 1995). Many of these measurement tools are based on theoretical constructs and empirical data. Some of them have been repeatedly revised and improved (Fouad, 2001). Vocational assessment enables career counselors to understand clients' vocational behavior in a relatively objective way and improves the process of career intervention.

Vocational assessment is enhanced by the use of technology. More specifically, the advancement in computer-assisted techniques greatly enriches career assessment and intervention. Counselors are relieved from the tedious task of data entry and analysis, and, therefore, can focus more time on facilitating clients' awareness of themselves by explaining the assessment results. The recent wide use of the Internet makes it possible to share and distribute information in a much more efficient way. Another achievement of technology is the development and improvement of computer-based career planning systems (CBCP). According to Harris-Bowlsbey and Sampson (2001), since the late 1960s, at least 12 CBCP systems have been developed. They provide an important support tool for the career counselors.

Professional identity and organization should be remembered as another asset of career counseling. The National Career Development Association will celebrate its 90th anniversary and is one of the founding divisions of the American Counseling Association (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001). Today, career intervention services are available in various settings, including career development centers on college campuses, guidance departments in schools, business and organizational settings, and community agencies. The scope of services is enormous, ranging from career exploration programs for younger students to helping undecided students select a major to job placement and work adjustment. Career development has been adopted by the American School Counseling Association (ASCA) as a key component in the national standards of comprehensive school counseling programs (ASCA, 1998).

Internal Weakness

The career development literature has demonstrated impressive growth in its ability to advance theoretical concepts and to address individual differences (e.g., gender, racial/ethnic background, disability, and socioeconomic class) in the last few decades (Arbona, 2000; Cook, 1991; Luzzo & MacGregor, 2001 ; Subich, 1994). Nevertheless, it is not certain that career counselors use the ideas in the literature and from research results in actual practice. The lack of cohesiveness between practitioners and researchers presents a problem for the validity of both theory and practice (Walsh & Savickas, 1996). In fact, very few researchers have investigated the outcome of career intervention, career counseling evaluation, or process variables (Subich, 1994; Swanson & Parcover, 1998). Only 37 of 311 studies reviewed for the period of 1996-1998 by Toman (2000) suggested future studies on career intervention. As stated by Lucas (1996), "Practitioners rarely use journal articles as reference source, and for good reason" (p.82). Why would career counseling practitioners consult journals that lack articles about career intervention strategies?

In addition, there is a lack of ecological consideration in using career theories and methods. Researchers (Blustein, 1994; Cook, Heppner, & O'Brien, in press; Fouad, 2001) have recognized contextual factors' influence (e.g., sex roles, educational and socioeconomic backgrounds, and environment in which one grows up) on a person's career development. However, integration of contextual factors into career intervention strategy is yet to be developed. Many existing career intervention programs are not sensitive to the restraints and resources in an individual's environment; therefore, the likelihood for successful implementation of an intervention is low.

Unfortunately, most career counselors, unless trained with career specialization in their degree programs, have inadequate training in career development and career counseling. Tinsley (2001) attributed insufficient vocational psychology training in many counseling psychology programs to the marginalization of the profession. He asserted that the focus of career development has been removed from training and service because health insurance does not ordinarily cover the costs of career counseling. Holland (1996) also emphasized the inadequacy of the training that career counselors received when he analyzed the deficiencies and problems in practitioners of career counseling. Another example can further illustrate the problem that career counselors are facing. Students in master's-level training programs across the United States are only required to take one course in career development by the accreditation standard of the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs or state licensure.

Career counseling seems to overwhelmingly target college students and to a lesser degree high school students. The centrality of career development across the entire life span is missing from the current research and practice in the field (Vondracek, 2001). The early and late portions of the life span in relation to career development have been poorly understood (Swanson, 1992). Career education is integrated more often into the curriculum at the middle school and high school level but is very rarely included at the elementary school level. The needs of older individuals and the postretirement population are neglected (Vondracek, 2001); information and resources for providing career counseling services to this populations are sparse at best.

Whenever I have asked the students in my career development class how many of them had visited the guidance office in their high schools or the career development center (or counseling center) in their colleges for career counseling services, most of them have answered that they have never done so or sometimes have not even known where the career development center was located. For those who have received service, all they remember is that they were given some types of assessment, and, most often, they do not remember the results or the meaning of them. Underutilization of services and inadequate service seem to be the other two issues that our profession needs to address. University career centers have played an important role in helping undecided students to select a major, but is that enough? Absolutely not. Holland (1996) criticized the insensitivity to clients' career aspirations: "Some counselors don't appear to listen to a client's goals and proceed instead to confront or administer treatments designed to change a person's aspiration without getting informed consent or understanding" (p.3). Making a career decision is simple, but implementing a career choice involves much more, as Krumboltz said in an interview by Feller, Honaker, and Zagzebski (2001).

Double-Edged Sword: External Threats and Opportunities for Career Counseling

In this section, I analyze the external threats to career counseling. I believe that a threat can be turned into an opportunity if addressed. The Chinese character for "crisis" encompasses the meaning of danger and opportunity in one symbol; thus, I discuss the threats and opportunities together.

The changing economy provides both threats and opportunities for career counseling in the future. First, the change in occupational structure and labor demands makes it difficult for career counselors to rely solely on the conventional classification system of job clusters. A great many new occupations require that workers combine traits in a different way than has traditionally been done, possess more adaptive skills, and have the ability to learn quickly to adjust to new environments. The new occupational classification system that will replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles and incorporate the changes that are occurring in the world of work is yet to be developed and refined (G. D. Gottfredson, 2001). Helping clients understand the relationship between personal traits and environmental requirements is no longer as simple as it once was. Second, today's workforce has witnessed a great change in its composition in the last two decades, and the trend is that the workforce will continue to be diversified, with more women and members of minority groups entering the labor force. The growing but still sparse literature about the career development of people from different cultural backgrounds only provides a very general framework that calls for career practitioners to be mindful of the impact of cultural differences on people's vocational behavior (Leong & Brown, 1995). Career counselors are still not sure exactly how they should intervene in regard to the problems these groups of people face. Moreover, it remains uncertain exactly what the impact is of a more diverse workforce on the work setting for each individual. Third, another social and economic change is the globalization of the economy. With more international companies and even small businesses constantly looking for opportunities to reduce costs--including downsizing and relocation of companies to take advantage of cheap labor--it becomes harder to achieve and maintain work stability. Stress derived from instability and the lack of lifetime employment (Stoltz-Loike, 1996) for individual workers is an emerging theme for the career counseling profession. The global economy also means that career counseling must have cross-cultural validation and an international focus.

The major threat from information technology and the wide use of the Internet is to the provision of career services and the training of career practitioners, but at the same time, information technology provides an exciting opportunity for a new application of career counseling and advances in the profession (Lent, 2001; Luzzo & MacGregor, 2001). Because of the information and communication technology, overwhelmingly enormous amounts of information become available to the public. The occupational information that has traditionally been available in career centers is now accessible from home with a few keystrokes on the computer keyboard. Online testing becomes much more appealing than boring pencil-and-paper testing. In essence, computer technologies significantly change the methods of delivering career services and provide an alternative avenue of offering career services. What is the role of counselors then? Are they really obsolete? How can counselors take advantage of advanced technologies to enhance career counseling services?

Historically, career development and career counseling have to a large extent been shaped by the federal government (Herr, 2001; Pope, 2000). Power and resources are important to the implementation and realization of any innovative programs or ideas. Without institutional support and government policy and regulations, career counseling may end up only in scholarly publications. State licensure and health insurance policies are the other external barriers that may affect the provision and scope of career services. A client is depressed because of the loss of a job. This client will not be covered by his health insurance if he only seeks career intervention, which is what he might need the most; instead, he must go for mental health counseling, which may be in vain if his career concerns are not appropriately addressed. Adequately addressing the needs of everyone calls for career counselors to have more active roles in legislation and advocacy.

Strategies: Building on Strengths and Overcoming Weakness to Face the Challenge

The importance of the integration of career development theory and practice has been effectively discussed in a book, Handbook of Career Counseling Theory and Practice, edited by Savickas and Walsh (1996). Practitioners need to be active and participating consumers of research, and researchers need to conduct research that is based on clinical cases. If theorists and practitioners can collaborate to construct career counseling theories that focus on career counseling rather than on career development and vocational behavior, it will truly build on the strengths that we as career counselors already have and overcome the shortcomings we have--the disconnect between theory and practice.

To help their clients adjust well to the environment that is changing due to the transformation of economical and social structures, career counselors need to take an expanded role in career counseling. This expanded role includes being a change agent (Savickas, 2000); an advocate for lifelong learning and life-span planning (Stoltz-Loike, 1996; Young & Chen, 1999); and a facilitator for holistic planning by integrating work, family, and community (Hansen, 2001). The goals of career counseling should go beyond making a decision at the beginning, but should instead focus on lifelong adaptability. Equally important, an ecological consideration of clients' unique resources and limitations should be incorporated into the implementation of any career intervention.

Communication and collaboration among professionals are valuable in providing better services to clients. Communication is needed not only between theory and practice (Holland, 1996; Leong, 1996), but also among different disciplines (G. D. Gottfredson, 2001). Boundaries prevent the integration of views from different perspectives and understanding the complexity of issues (Leong, 1996). Career issues are not isolated from other aspects of people's lives; therefore, career counselors cannot have a narrow focus in their interventions. To be better prepared to provide an integrated service, gaining information pertaining to the career development of individuals and collaborating with other professionals are essential.

Probably nothing is more important than providing adequate training to future career counselors in order to meet the challenges. One course in career development is insufficient; instead, career concepts and issues should be infused into the entire curriculum. Students should be trained to have a broader view of a person's problems by integrating various sources of information, including career-related issues. Students should be trained to be practitioner scientists, as suggested by Lucas (1996). I am not suggesting that all programs should train every student to be a career counseling specialist, yet all students should be adequately trained so that they know how to conceptualize a case from multiple perspectives without ignoring the career development perspective.

Final Remarks: A Vision for Career Counseling in the Future

I might be idealistic, yet I think it is important to have a dream. Here are the dreams I want to share with you. First, everyone--not only people in college-bound classes or already on college campuses, but all people regardless of their age, gender, race, ethnicity, physical/mental condition, sexual orientation, educational levels, career aspirations, or socioeconomic class--will have truly equal access to career services. Thus, career counseling services should not only be available in school settings (K-16) but also in community settings and industrial organizations. Career services should be accessible for underserved populations, including older people, people from disadvantaged economic backgrounds, and from culturally different backgrounds.

Second, technology should become career counselors' best assistant, not their competitor. Computers will accomplish much of the tedious and labor-intensive work, such as record keeping, the management of assessment data, and searching for information. Discussion and consultation regarding cases can be done using multimedia technologies. I envision that technology will enhance career counselors' performance by being an extension to what they are doing but not replacing their jobs. Computer technologies cannot substitute for the counselor's role in facilitating self-awareness, self-exploration, and the construction of an individual's journey in a career path.

Third, career counselors, being relieved from routine work by computers, can really use what they are trained for: helping people to make meaning of their life (with work as a part of life) and to develop coping skills to adjust well to their environment. Career counselors do not just match people with work but also help people find their sense of self in relation to work and life. Finally, I envision career intervention becoming a global entity rather than existing only in industrialized countries. To add one more vision, career services will be recognized by health insurance companies as a necessary and effective approach to a person's health and well-being.

Like the pioneers in the career counseling field at the beginning of the twentieth century, career counselors today also face a transformation of the economy, this time not from an agricultural to an industrial economy, but from an industrial economy to an information economy. Career counselors, being equipped with many assets already, should be able to face the challenge. My vision can come closer to reality if we, as career counselors, collaborate with each other, construct our reality, and advocate for our clients.

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Mei Tang, College of Education, University of Cincinnati. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Mei Tang, College of Education, ML 0002, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221 (e-mail: [e-mail]).