Career Education in the Primary Grades.

Building Work-Readiness Through an Experiential Curriculum

Instruction based on experience should lead to applied understandings that originate in the classroom, but reach beyond its walls.

An observer enters a 1st-grade classroom where small groups of children are busy with "explorations." This is a math lesson, explains the teacher. The children are learning categorization skills as they sort beans according to shape and color. Some of the students will count the beans in each pile so that the whole group can graph the results of their work. Then, all of the children will use the beans to solve word problems and experiment with making patterns.

Upstairs, the visitor sees that a group of 3rd-graders are also having a math lesson. Textbooks are propped open on desks as the children watch the teacher demonstrate a new concept. Multiplication, it seems, involves drawing X's on the chalkboard, then circling some of them. Or do the circles come first, and then the X's? The children are not sure. His attention flagging, one boy takes out his crayons and begins to align them in rows. The teacher instructs him to put away the crayons and to concentrate on the lesson. Later, when the children tackle their assignment, few of them are confident about how to proceed.

Learning means something different in these two classrooms. Without some knowledge of how children come to understand the world, the observer might assume that maturity levels are solely responsible for that difference. The important contrast between these settings lies not in the age of the children, however, but rather in their teachers' attitudes about what constitutes an acceptable way to learn. In the 3rd-grade classroom, the children are expected to watch the teacher, follow the directions, and attempt to apply the concepts on their own. The 1st-graders, in contrast, are busy creating knowledge through collaborative interaction with appropriate materials. Experiential activity provides the context for their learning. More important, it also offers preparation for the real-world tasks these children will face as adults.

The Context for Work Readiness

Broadly speaking, experiential learning may be defined as learning through experience (Cherrington & Van Ments, 1994). Instruction based on experience should lead to applied understandings that originate in the classroom, but reach, beyond its walls. This view of teaching and learning has a solid foundation in educational theory supported by the work of Rousseau, Dewey, Piaget, and others (Cain, 1992). In fact, experiential principles have served as the basis for a number of early childhood programs (e.g., Forman & Kuschner, 1983; Shapiro & Nager, 1999; Wassermann, 1992).

One interesting view of experiential learning is what Wassermann (1992) calls "serious play." She describes serious play as creative and inventive activities that promote autonomy and a spirit of adventure, and that achieve mental engagement through active involvement with the physical world. Serious play is built on experience, and is inextricably linked to it. Wassermann believes that learners of all ages create meaning through serious play.

In preschool and kindergarten, experience often takes the form of play. Many schools relegate play to the kindergarten, however. Once children enter the elementary grades, learning is seen as "work" that takes priority over play. "It is as if educators believe that during the short span between kindergarten's end and 1st grade's beginning, children magically transform into abstract learners who no longer need to interact with their environment in active, playful ways" (Patton & Mercer, 1996, p. 10).

Traditional classrooms have become places where children work in isolation, often completing worksheets that have little relation to their daily lives and pursuing academic disciplines that are ends unto themselves. Coleman (1976) traces learning in academically oriented settings over the course of a typical child's school career:

In the very early grades, a high proportion of experiential learning is employed through the use of play, games, ... and many related activities. This proportion sharply diminishes in elementary school and beyond, being replaced by lectures, classroom discussions, and other modes of information assimilation.... (p. 58)

Without opportunities for open-ended exploration of materials and ideas, children may become one-dimensional thinkers. "Doing worksheets in school prepares a student emotionally to do worksheets in life" (Sylvester, in Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, p. 144).

The competencies traditionally emphasized in elementary schools were the basic skills once prized by industries needing assembly-line laborers. Such factory floor jobs are rapidly disappearing (Rifkin, 1997), however, and educators now need to prepare children for jobs that may not even exist yet. Tomorrow's workers will need new skills and aptitudes--competencies that emphasize collaboration and the ability to solve complex problems (Abbott, 1995).

These new competencies were spelled out in the SCANS Report (Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991), which outlined educational implications related to ongoing changes in the workplace. According to the report, progress in basic academic skills, combined with growth in thinking skills and positive personal qualities, would form a foundation for five additional competencies: use of resources, interpersonal skills, information utilization, knowledge of work-related systems, and technological expertise. These competencies are taught and learned in an integrated fashion, and acquired over time in all grade levels. Knowledge is built within the context of application (children's counting skills, for example, could be enhanced while sorting beans by physical attributes), requiring a setting that values both exploration and information assimilation. Table 1 suggests ways in which even young children might demonstrate progress in attaining these competencies.

Table 1

Ways in Which Young Children Might Acquire/Apply the SCANS Cmnpetencies (Secretary's Commission, 1991)

Competency                Examples of Possible Application

Resources                 1. Select appropriate materials to
(Identify, organize,         complete a project.
plan, and allocate)       2. Learn to work efficiently within
                             time limits.
                          3. Keep track of personal possessions.

Interpersonal             1. Participate in formulating class
(Productive interaction      rules.
with others)              2. Cooperate on small-group projects.
                          3. Work toward resolving conflicts on
                             the playground.

Information               1. Ask appropriate questions during
(Acquire and use             circle time sharing.
information)              2. Listen for specifics during
                             read-aloud time.
                          3. Understand environmental signs in
                             the school building.

Systems                   1. Know who can help them solve a
(Understand complex          problem.
interrelationships)       2. Be aware that the school day has
                             certain routines.
                          3. Begin to use the calendar.

Technology                1. Play age-appropriate computer games.
(Work with a variety      2. Use headphones to hear recorded
of technologies)             stories or songs.
                          3. Take photographs with a simple camera.

The suitability of the SCANS competencies for young children is underscored by their similarity to the goals of the Bank Street Model, a well-respected approach to early childhood education. This model combines cognitive and affective aims to strengthen competencies, with self-knowledge and autonomy developed through interactions with peers, teachers, and the environment (Shapiro & Nager, 1999). Similarly, the SCANS goals emphasize both intellectual and personal competencies, which are acquired concurrently in a functional context (Secretary's Commission, 1, 991).

Integration of learning and application also is supported by Resnick's (1987b) study of programs that successfully promoted higher-order thinking skills. The programs were organized around contextualized subject matter and collaborative activity. They also displayed elements of apprenticeships, specifically encouraging the participation of unskilled learners in worthwhile tasks, with proficiencies developed through joint projects or assignments with those who were already competent. In these programs, school-based work (traditionally abstract and symbolic) was more like workplace learning (based on job specifications and tool adequacy). While a curriculum emphasizing higher-order mental activity is appropriate preparation for the workplace (Resnick, 1987a), such intellectual work should be rooted in experience.

This brings us, once again, to the experiential qualities of play and play-like activity. Recalling the SCANS Report's (Secretary's Commission, 1991) mandate for school settings to combine knowledge acquisition and application, it is interesting to note the parallels between the criteria for higher-order thinking skills proposed by Resnick (1987a) and Wassermann's (1992) description of experiential learning as "serious play." (See Table 2 for a comparison.)

Table 2

Comparing the Experiential Nature of "Serious Play" With Criteria for Higher-Order Thinking Skills (Harkins, 1998)

Resnick's (1987a) Criteria for    Wassermann's (1992) Description
   Higher-Order Thinking                of "Serious Play"

"Higher-order thinking is         "The creation of new ideas does
nonalgorithmic. That is, the      not come from minds trained to
path of action is not fully       doggedly follow what is already
specified in advance" (p. 3).     known" (p. 134).

"Higher-order thinking tends      "The content of the curriculum
to be complex. The total path     is not covered in a linear,
is not `visible' from any         sequential way" (p. 138).
single vantage point" (p. 3).

"Higher-order thinking often      Play is generative. "In play we
yields multiple solutions ...     are not locked into conforming
rather than unique solutions"     to a set standard of what is
(p. 3).                           right" (p. 135).

"Higher-order thinking involves   "More open play has much greater
nuanced judgment and              potential for creation
interpretation" (p. 3).           and invention, for risk-taking"
                                  (p. 137).

"Higher-order thinking involves   "It is play that sanctions what
the application of multiple       is different" (p. 135).
criteria, which sometimes
conflict" (p. 3).

"Higher-order thinking often      "Play invites learning to value
involves uncertainty. Not         error as a means of learning
everything that bears on the      more" (p. 135).
task at hand is known" (p. 3).

"Higher-order thinking involves   "Play builds autonomy" (p. 135).
self-regulation of the thinking
process" (p. 3).

"Higher-order thinking involves   "Serious play" is part of
imposing meaning, finding         experiential learning, with
structure in apparent disorder"   knowledge "formed and reformed
(p. 3).                           through experience" (p. 136).

"Higher-order thinking is         "Active experience builds
effortful" (p. 3).                understanding" (p. 136).

Clearly, many similarities exist between the experiential nature of play and the types of intellectual activity needed by successful workers (Resnick, 1987a). The correspondence of descriptors and supporting conditions for higher mental activity and experiential learning sustains the premise that knowledge acquisition and application can be accomplished simultaneously. It makes sense, for example, that an activity such as dividing up the available supply of blocks may develop children's effective problem-solving skills. In contrast, completing a stack of worksheets has far less value. It seems, then, that the experience-based, play-like settings of early childhood classrooms provide excellent preparation for real-world work.

Theory into Practice--Implications for Educators

The importance of experience in career education has several implications that frame the ways students learn and inform the ways teachers teach. The first implication is that experiential learning is important at all grade levels. Appropriate workplace preparation should flow throughout the grades in a "systematic process that will enable [children] to develop sound educational and career plans" (Starr, 1996, p. 9). An open-ended environment of "serious play" supplies an effective context for acquiring knowledge and application simultaneously.

As a corollary, teachers must plan learning experiences that are developmentally appropriate (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). While students at every level may benefit from increased exposure to similar work-related topics, the presentation of those topics will differ. For instance, high school seniors might learn about teamwork through part-time jobs or internships. It would be more appropriate for primary-graders to simulate an assembly line in their own classroom. Similarly, kindergartners would be bored by a lecture on occupations, but most young children will enjoy playfully investigating the tools needed for various jobs.

Therefore, it follows that although open-ended activities are conducive to learning, simply providing any kind of experience will not suffice. Teachers could read aloud a fictional story about a steam-shovel operator one afternoon, and take the children to visit a building site the next. Both of these activities provide information about construction work, but the two experiences are likely to have very different effects on children's emergent concepts. As Dewey (1938) pointed out, all experiences are not equally valuable.

Roberts et al. (1996) categorize experiences from the least to the most concrete (see Table 3) and recommend that teachers plan for experiences that are as direct (concrete) as possible. Because concrete experiences are more like real life, they are more likely to offer an effective context for learning about careers (which are, after all, part of "real life"). This context is especially important when planning career-related lessons for young children, who tend to relate everything to what they have experienced concretely (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Jalongo, 1989).

Table 3

Types of Learning Experiences (Roberts et al., 1996)

Least Concrete Experiences

Verbal

Visual

Vicarious

Simulated

Direct

Most Concrete Experiences

As teachers help children to discover career possibilities, the selection of learning activities is critical. Table 3 shows that if children cannot visit a building site (direct experience), the "next best" scenario is a simulation activity--perhaps one that involves constructing skyscrapers from cardboard boxes, for example. Research supports work site simulations as especially effective in helping learners to expand their repertoires of career choices and to understand the ramifications of those decisions (Grobe & Bailis, 1996; Jalongo, 1989).

A simulation can be just one aspect of a larger project (e.g., a building simulation as part of the study of houses). The "project approach" (Katz & Chard, 1989) refers to children's in-depth study of a specific topic, usually undertaken by children over several days (or weeks), and frequently structured around investigations or construction activities. Doing projects encourages children to build their knowledge through practical application.

All of the SCANS competencies and skills (Secretary's Commission, 1991) can be developed by doing projects. For example, a kindergarten class that is interested in gardens might undertake a project on that topic. Activities could include selecting and purchasing seeds (resources and information competencies); cooperating to create an8 care for the garden (interpersonal competency); and harvesting, preparing, and consuming the crop (resources, interpersonal, information, and systems competencies). Technology skills might be utilized if children learned to use a spray attachment on a hose or were helped to operate a blender to make vegetable juice. Of course, basic skills (counting seeds), thinking skills (how to keep the garden amply watered on weekends), and positive personal qualities (doing one's fair share) would be developed as well. It goes without saying that while doing the activities (application), children also would form concepts (knowledge base) about garden-related occupations.

The curriculum is also important. McGilly (1994) cites employers' and college teachers' criticism of students' current preparation for either the workplace or higher education: "Students need to acquire learning skills that apply across the curriculum and beyond school as well" (p. 3). In other words, amassing information without context is insufficient. Skilled workers of the future must apply their knowledge to solve problems, and consider both the circumstances that generated the problem as well as the consequences of their attempts to resolve it (Abbott, 1995).

An effective curriculum infuses career-building competencies throughout the school program to encourage integration of skills from all subjects (Jalongo, 1989; Secretary's Commission, 1991). For early childhood specialists, incorporating career education can be as simple as adding work-related clothing to the dramatic play center, with follow-up discussion to promote concept-building about occupations and their relationship to children's lives. Children need to connect school learning with what happens in the workplace. Ultimately, children should learn that all curricular areas facilitate the solution of real-world problems. It is helpful, especially for younger children, if the teacher makes those connections explicit.

Children also build career competencies in lessons that seem to have little relationship to occupations. For example, the 1st-graders who were engaged in sorting beans were simultaneously learning how to acquire and use information, building their interpersonal skills, increasing their basic skills in math, and strengthening their cooperative and self-management personal qualities--all important SCANS competencies (Secretary's Commission, 1991). These competencies should be acquired over time in every subject area and at all levels.

Still another implication concerns assessment. Traditional assessment methods are ineffective when learning is based on experience, and they provide little insight into a student's ability to perform complex intellectual tasks (Worthen, 1993). Bergen (1993/94) recommends that learners demonstrate what they know and can do through performance-based assessment. Her view of assessment goes beyond considering changes in student behavior. It also considers the conditions underlying those changes, the errors that helped to shape concept formation, and the roles played by adults. Traditional methods of evaluation (e.g., a true/false test) supply little of this information.

Emphasizing performance assessment does not obviate the need for building a knowledge base of sufficient depth. The true test of knowledge, however, lies in its successful application. While a child may demonstrate knowledge about colors by pointing to a green dot on demand, the child who applies that knowledge to cross the street at a signal-controlled crosswalk shows a far deeper understanding. Assessment should allow children to apply their knowledge and skills for varied purposes across multiple contexts (Wishon, Crabtree, & Jones, 1998).

Finally, teachers need to realize that they are not alone in this venture. The roles played by families and communities cannot be discounted. Each child's background is shaped by the culture of family and community life (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). While it is appropriate for educators to open new doors for the children under their care, they also must respect and support family career choices. Furthermore, career education can be greatly enriched if parents are asked to share their experiences. Some parents may be able to visit the classroom to describe the work they do, while others could send a photograph taken at work or tape-record a description of a typical workday. A field trip to a parent's workplace takes the learning process into the community, a critical step in smoothing the eventual transition into the world of work (Abbott, 1995). In this way, "the children themselves, their families, and the community are ... resources for the teacher and for each other" (Shapiro & Nager, 1999, p. 27).

Conclusion

The experiential activity of early childhood need not give way to information overload as learners progress through the grades (Coleman, 1976). Instead, the school curriculum can be structured around open-ended "serious play" (Wassermann, 1992). With an experience-based curriculum, children can explore the properties of concrete objects or test their theories by using manipulatives, then "play around" with the words and ideas engendered by creative activity. Experiential tasks build higher-order thought patterns by providing data for knowledge assimilation and the accommodation of cognitive structures (Resnick, 1987a; Wassermann, 1992). This is true at all levels.

Experiential learning is essential preparation for the world of work. Until children have acquired concrete perceptions about the workplace, having a job remains an abstract concept. Direct, simulated, or vicarious experiences can help children connect school-based learning to the tasks they will undertake as adults (Roberts et al., 1996). In the process, learners also may discover that the path to understanding lies in collaborative experimentation and the testing of options--just as it often does in the workplace.

The goal of education is to prepare students for the future. A curriculum that places its greatest emphasis on abstract paper-and-pencil tasks will not provide them an adequate preparation. What children need is to develop work-readiness skills through the integration of knowledge acquisition and its practical application, a process that should start in the early grades. An education that will effectively prepare young people for future careers is one that connects the world of childhood play and the adult workplace within the context of experiential learning.

References

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Shapiro, E. K., & Nager, N. (1999). The developmental-interaction approach to education: Retrospect and prospect. New York: Bank Street College of Education.

Starr, M. F. (1996). Comprehensive guidance and systematic educational and career planning: Why a K-12 approach? Journal of Career Development, 23 (1), 9-22.

Wassermann, S. (1992). Serious play in the classroom: How messing around can win you the Nobel Prize. Childhood Education, 68, 133-139.

Wishon, P. M., Crabtree, K., & Jones, M. E. (1998). Curriculum for the primary years: An integrated approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Worthen, B. (1993). Critical issues that will determine the future of alternative assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 74(6), 444-454.

Web Site Resources

Bureau of Labor Statistics http://stats.bls.gov/blshome.htm

Educational resources for grades K-12 are included. KAPOW http://www.kapow.org/

Lesson suggestions related to the SCANS competencies. What Do They Do? http://www.webquarry.com/~lgfd/

Career descriptions are accompanied by stories about people in those jobs.

Correspondence concerning this article may be addressed to Margaret A. Harkins, Department of Education, The Ohio State University, Morrill Hall, 1465 Mt. Vernon Ave., Marion, OH 43302; 740-389-6786; [e-mail].

Margaret A. Harkins is a Visiting Assistant Professor and Program Coordinator, Department of Education, The Ohio State University, Marion.