Cancer Mortality in Four Northern Wheat-Producing States.Chlorophenoxy herbicides are used both in cereal cereal or grain Any grass yielding starchy seeds suitable for food. The most commonly cultivated cereals are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn, and sorghum. As human food, cereals are usually marketed in raw grain form or as ingredients of food products. grain agriculture and in nonagricultural settings such as right-of-ways, lawns, and parks. Minnesota Minnesota, state, United States Minnesota (mĭn'ĭsō`tə), upper midwestern state of the United States. It is bordered by Lake Superior and Wisconsin (E), Iowa (S), South Dakota and North Dakota (W), and the Canadian provinces , North Dakota North Dakota, state in the N central United States. It is bordered by Minnesota, across the Red River of the North (E), South Dakota (S), Montana (W), and the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba (N). , South Dakota South Dakota (dəkō`tə), state in the N central United States. It is bordered by North Dakota (N), Minnesota and Iowa (E), Nebraska (S), and Wyoming and Montana (W). , and Montana Montana (mŏntăn`ə), Rocky Mt. state in the NW United States. It is bounded by North Dakota and South Dakota (E), Wyoming (S), Idaho (W), and the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan (N). grow most of the spring and durum wheat durum wheat: see wheat. produced in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . More than 90% of spring and durum wheat is treated with chlorophenoxy herbicides, in contrast to treatment of approximately 30% of winter wheat winter wheat n. Wheat planted in the autumn and harvested the following spring or early summer. . In this ecologic e·col·o·gy n. pl. e·col·o·gies 1. a. The science of the relationships between organisms and their environments. Also called bionomics. b. The relationship between organisms and their environment. study I used wheat acreage as a surrogate surrogate n. 1) a person acting on behalf of another or a substitute, including a woman who gives birth to a baby of a mother who is unable to carry the child. 2) a judge in some states (notably New York) responsible only for probates, estates, and adoptions. for exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides. I investigated the association of chlorophenoxy herbicides with cancer mortality during 1980-1989 for selected counties based on level of agriculture ([is greater than or equal to] 20%) and rural population ([is greater than or equal to] 50%). Age-standardized cancer mortality rates The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. were determined for grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county or for individual counties for frequently occurring cancers. The cancer sites that showed positive trends of increasing cancer mortality with increasing wheat acreage were esophagus esophagus (ĭsŏf`əgəs), portion of the digestive tube that conducts food from the mouth to the stomach. When food is swallowed it passes from the pharynx into the esophagus, initiating rhythmic contractions (peristalsis) of the , stomach, rectum rectum: see intestine. rectum End segment of the large intestine (see digestion) in which feces accumulate just prior to discharge. It is 5–6 in. (13–15 cm) long and lined with mucous membrane. , pancreas pancreas (păn`krēəs), glandular organ that secretes digestive enzymes and hormones. In humans, the pancreas is a yellowish organ about 7 in. (17.8 cm) long and 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) wide. , larynx larynx (lâr`ĭngks), organ of voice in mammals. Commonly known as the voice box, the larynx is a tubular chamber about 2 in. (5 cm) high, consisting of walls of cartilage bound by ligaments and membranes, and moved by muscles. , prostate prostate /pros·tate/ (pros´tat) a gland surrounding the bladder neck and urethra in the male; it contributes a secretion to the semen.prostat´ic pros·tate n. The prostate gland. adj. , kidney and ureter ureter (y  rē`tər), thick-walled tube that conveys urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder. It is approximately 10 in. (25. , brain, thyroid thyroid /thy·roid/ (thi´roid)1. the thyroid gland; see under gland. 2. pertaining to the thyroid gland. 3. scutiform. 4. , bone, and all cancers (men) and oral cavity oral cavity n. The part of the mouth behind the teeth and gums that is bounded above by the hard and soft palates and below by the tongue and the mucous membrane connecting it with the inner part of the mandible. and tongue, esophagus, stomach, liver and gall bladder gall bladder, small pear-shaped sac that stores and concentrates bile. It is connected to the liver (which produces the bile) by the hepatic duct. When food containing fat reaches the small intestine, the hormone cholecystokinin is produced by cells in the intestinal and bile ducts Bile ducts Tubes that carry bile, a thick yellowish-green fluid that is made by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and helps the body digest fats. Mentioned in: Liver Transplantation, Percutaneous Transhepatic Cholangiography , pancreas, cervix cervix /cer·vix/ (ser´viks) pl. cer´vices [L.] 1. neck. 2. the front portion of the neck. 3. cervix uteri. , ovary ovary, ductless gland of the female in which the ova (female reproductive cells) are produced. In vertebrate animals the ovary also secretes the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone, which control the development of the sexual organs and the secondary sexual , bladder bladder /blad·der/ (blad´er) 1. a membranous sac, such as one serving as receptacle for a secretion. 2. urinary bladder. , and other urinary urinary /uri·nary/ (u´ri-nar?e) pertaining to, containing, or secreting urine. u·ri·nar·y adj. 1. Relating to urine and its production, function, or excretion. 2. organs, and all cancers (women). Rare cancers in men and women and cancers in boys and girls boys and girls mercurialisannua. were studied by comparing counties above and below the median of wheat acreage per county. There was increased mortality for cancer of the nose and eye in both men and women, brain and leukemia leukemia (l  kē`mēə), cancerous disorder of the blood-forming tissues (bone marrow, lymphatics, liver, spleen) characterized by excessive production of immature or mature in both boys
and girls, and all cancers in boys. These results suggest an association
between cancer mortality and wheat acreage in counties of these four
states. Key words: adults, agriculture, cancer mortality, children,
chlorophenoxy herbicides, 2,4-D, herbicides, human, MCPA MCPA, MCP2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid; a weedkiller reported to be nontoxic at the levels likely to be encountered on pasture, though it has killed cattle dosed experimentally with large single doses. , pesticides, wheat. Environ en·vi·ron tr.v. en·vi·roned, en·vi·ron·ing, en·vi·rons To encircle; surround. See Synonyms at surround. [Middle English envirounen, from Old French environner Health Perspect 108:873-881 (2000). [Online 1 August 2000] http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2000/108p873-881schreinemachers /abstract.html Chlorophenoxy herbicides such as 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid (MCPA) were first produced after the Second World War. They have been one of the most widely used class of herbicides since the mid- mid- pref. Middle: midbrain. 1960s, not only in the United States but also in other parts of the world. They are used in agriculture to control growth of broadleaf broad·leaf adj. Broad-leaved. Adj. 1. broadleaf - having relatively broad rather than needlelike or scalelike leaves broad-leafed, broad-leaved weeds 1. weeds - Refers to development projects or algorithms that have no possible relevance or practical application. Comes from "off in the weeds". Used in phrases like "lexical analysis for microcode is serious weeds." 2. in cereal grains and in nonagricultural settings to control growth of unwanted brush in rangeland, forests, noncrop land, rights-of-way, and in roadside maintenance. In addition, 2,4-D is one of the most commonly used herbicides in urban areas for the maintenance of parks, golf courses, playgrounds, playing fields, and home lawns and gardens (1-4). Chlorophenoxy herbicides are often mixed with other herbicides and fertilizer fertilizer, organic or inorganic material containing one or more of the nutrients—mainly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, and other essential elements required for plant growth. . Dioxins are unwanted contaminants (2,5-7). One of the most toxic dioxins, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD TCDD tetrachlorodibenzodioxin. ), a contaminant contaminant /con·tam·i·nant/ (kon-tam´in-int) something that causes contamination. contaminant something that causes contamination. of the chlorophenoxy herbicide herbicide (hr`bəsīd'), chemical compound that kills plants or inhibits their normal growth. A herbicide in a particular formulation and application can be described as selective or nonselective. 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), is a potent carcinogen carcinogen: see cancer. carcinogen Agent that can cause cancer. Exposure to one or more carcinogens, including certain chemicals, radiation, and certain viruses, can initiate cancer under conditions not completely understood. in animals (6). Most registrations for 2,4,5-T were canceled in 1979 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent agency of the U.S. government, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It was established in 1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution, noise pollution, and radiation and to ensure the safe handling and (2,6-8). Contamination of 2,4-D and MCPA by TCDD is not likely (5). More than 60% of all agricultural herbicides used in the United States, including 2,4-D and MCPA, reportedly have the potential to disrupt the endocrine endocrine /en·do·crine/ (en´do-krin, en´do-krin) 1. secreting internally. 2. pertaining to internal secretions; hormonal. See also under system. en·do·crine adj. and/or and/or conj. Used to indicate that either or both of the items connected by it are involved. Usage Note: And/or is widely used in legal and business writing. reproductive system reproductive system, in animals, the anatomical organs concerned with production of offspring. In humans and other mammals the female reproductive system produces the female reproductive cells (the eggs, or ova) and contains an organ in which development of the fetus of animals (1). Because chlorophenoxy herbicides are among the most common herbicides, widespread exposure to them is likely. Not only are people working in the agricultural industry exposed (e.g., farmers, farm workers, pesticide pesticide, biological, physical, or chemical agent used to kill plants or animals that are harmful to people; in practice, the term pesticide is often applied only to chemical agents. manufacturers and mixers, and crop duster crop duster Usually, an aircraft used for dusting or spraying large acreages with pesticides, though other types of dusters are also employed. Aerial spraying and dusting permit prompt coverage of large areas at the moment when application of pesticide is most effective and pilots) but their families are also exposed because of contaminated contaminated, v 1. made radioactive by the addition of small quantities of radioactive material. 2. made contaminated by adding infective or radiographic materials. 3. an infective surface or object. clothing or dust tracked into the house (9). Lawn care workers and highway maintenance workers are also exposed. Other routes of exposure are drift drift, deposit of mixed clay, gravel, sand, and boulders transported and laid down by glaciers. Stratified, or glaciofluvial, drift is carried by waters flowing from the melting ice of a glacier. from aerial aerial: see antenna, in electronics. pesticide application to crops, contamination of surface or groundwater groundwater or subsurface water Water that occurs below the surface of the Earth, where it occupies spaces in soils or geologic strata. Most groundwater comes from precipitation, which gradually percolates into the Earth. , or walking in recently sprayed lawns and fields. A study of household pesticide use observed that 2,4-D is one of the most prevalent herbicides used by home owners home owner home n → propriétaire occupant (1,10). Suburban lawns The Suburban Lawns were an American New Wave group from the late 1970s through the early 1980s. Originating in the Southern California punk rock scene, the band consisted of:
Use of and exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides is widespread. Therefore, it may be difficult to find a group of unexposed subjects to be used as a referent ref·er·ent n. A person or thing to which a linguistic expression refers. Noun 1. referent - something referred to; the object of a reference in studies investigating the effect of exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides on human health. However, it is possible to find regions with a gradient gradient In mathematics, a differential operator applied to a three-dimensional vector-valued function to yield a vector whose three components are the partial derivatives of the function with respect to its three variables. The symbol for gradient is ∇. of low and high exposures to chlorophenoxy herbicides in wheat-growing states of the United States. Most of the durum durum a class of wheat producing hard flour. and spring wheat any kind of wheat sown in the spring; - in distinction from winter wheat, which is sown in autumn. See also: Spring (spring planted) grown in the United States is produced in four states (93% in 1982): Minnesota (MN), North Dakota (ND), South Dakota (SD), and Montana (MT) (13). Herbicide use on durum and spring wheat is similar: [is greater than] 90% of the acreage is treated with mostly chlorophenoxy herbicides (2,4-D and MCPA). In contrast, only 30% of the winter wheat acreage is usually treated (14,15). The 1982 percentages of combined spring and durum wheat acreage compared to all wheat acreage in MN, MT, ND, and SD were 97, 57, 98, and 65%, respectively (13). In the current study I used wheat acreage per county as a surrogate for exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides because information on crop acreage was more readily available than the amount of applied herbicides. To study the effect of herbicide using crop acreage as a surrogate, it is preferable that no other herbicides are used on the same crop and that no other crops are treated with the same herbicides. Agriculture in MN, ND, SD, and MT approaches this ideal situation because these four states grow few crops [wheat, corn, and soybeans are the main crops (Table 1)] and only have one crop season. Chlorophenoxy herbicides are used on wheat but not on soybeans, and little is used on corn (14,15). Barley barley, annual cereal plant (Hordeum vulgare and sometimes other species) of the family Gramineae (grass family), cultivated by humans probably as early as any cereal. , grown in the same regions as wheat, is also treated with chlorophenoxy herbicides. Because the wheat acreage in these four states is approximately 4-5 times larger than the barley acreage, I used wheat acreage as a measure of exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides. Estimates of the wheat acreage by county were obtained from the 1982 Agricultural Census conducted by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA USDA, n.pr See United States Department of Agriculture. ) (16).
Table 1. Percent harvested crop of total crop land.(a)
Minnesota North Dakota
Total crop land (acres x [10.sup.6]) 22.2 28.1
Harvested crop land (%) 88.9 72.2
Wheat 13.4 34.9
Corn 26.6 1.9
Soybeans 20.3 1.5
Barley 3.7 6.4
Oats 5.8 3.4
Potatoes 0.4 0.4
Sugar beets 1.2 0.5
Hay 11.3 9.4
Sunflower seeds 2.1 11.1
Average farm size (acres) 294 1,104
South Dakota Montana
Total crop land (acres x [10.sup.6]) 18.8 16.5
Harvested crop land (%) 76.6 56.9
Wheat 17.7 31.7
Corn 13.7 0.1
Soybeans 4.1 NA
Barley 2.8 9.8
Oats 9.6 1.0
Potatoes NA NA
Sugar beets NA 0.2
Hay 20.1 13.6
Sunflower seeds 2.6 NA
Average farm size (acres) 1,179 2,568
Data from the 1982 Agricultural Census (16). NA, not available. In a previous study Schreinemachers et al. (17) reported excess mortality in Northwestern Minnesota during 1980-1989 for cancer of the prostate, thyroid, and bone in men and for cancer of the eye in women. This region has a high level of agriculture: most of the available land is used to grow spring wheat. The objective of the current study was to confirm the previous results using a larger data set by including additional states and conduct more detailed analyses. Materials and Methods Cancer mortality. Cancer mortality data (underlying cause of death) for 1980-1989 collected by the National Center for Health Statistics National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), which is part of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. NCHS is the United States' principal health statistics agency. (18) were summarized for 34 cancer groups by 5-year age intervals, sex, race, and county and state of residence based on methods used by the National Cancer Institute to summarize sum·ma·rize intr. & tr.v. sum·ma·rized, sum·ma·riz·ing, sum·ma·riz·es To make a summary or make a summary of. sum cancer mortality data for previous decades. (19). Estimates for the population at risk during 1980-1989 by 5-year age groups, sex, race, and county and state of residence for non-Census years were obtained by interpolation interpolation In mathematics, estimation of a value between two known data points. A simple example is calculating the mean (see mean, median, and mode) of two population counts made 10 years apart to estimate the population in the fifth year. between the 1980 and 1990 Census population estimates (20,21) and by summing these estimates for 1980-1989. Crop acreage. The 1982 USDA Agricultural Census database (16) provided information on acreage of total land area, total crop land, and individual harvested crop acreage by county. Although most of the wheat grown in MN, ND, SD, and MT was spring or durum wheat, some of the acreage was winter wheat. Because this database did not distinguish between acres of winter, durum, and spring wheat by county, I used total wheat acreage as a surrogate for chlorophenoxy herbicide exposure. For a few counties with very low levels of wheat agriculture in 1982, the harvested wheat acreage was withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual farms, although the number of farms was listed. Estimates were obtained by multiplying mul·ti·ply 1 v. mul·ti·plied, mul·ti·ply·ing, mul·ti·plies v.tr. 1. To increase the amount, number, or degree of. 2. Mathematics To perform multiplication on. the number of farms with the average wheat acreage per farm from the 1987 Agricultural Census (16). Statistical methods. I excluded counties with [is less than] 20% crop land (i.e., total land area dedicated to crop land) or with an urban population of [is greater than] 50% from the analyses. These exclusions were made to ensure that risk estimates would reflect rural populations which are more likely to be exposed to agricultural pesticides than urban populations. I divided the remaining counties ([is greater than or equal to] 20% crop land and [is greater than or equal to] 50% rural population) into three groups based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county as estimated by the 1982 USDA Agricultural Census (16). I calculated age-standardized mortality rate ratios (SRRs) comparing the second and third tertile to the first tertile for each cancer site for men and women [is greater than or equal to] 15 years of age. SRRs for a cancer site were calculated only if each of the two groups being compared included at least five deaths. Only white subjects were included because data for nonwhites were too sparse sparse - A sparse matrix (or vector, or array) is one in which most of the elements are zero. If storage space is more important than access speed, it may be preferable to store a sparse matrix as a list of (index, value) pairs or use some kind of hash scheme or associative memory. to allow for reliable analysis. SRRs for rare cancers in men and women and cancers in boys and girls ([is less than] 15 years of age) were calculated by dividing counties into two groups based on the median of wheat per county, provided at least five deaths were reported for each group. The 1970 U.S. population was used for the age standardization standardization In industry, the development and application of standards that make it possible to manufacture a large volume of interchangeable parts. Standardization may focus on engineering standards, such as properties of materials, fits and tolerances, and drafting using the direct method (22). Confidence intervals confidence interval, n a statistical device used to determine the range within which an acceptable datum would fall. Confidence intervals are usually expressed in percentages, typically 95% or 99%. (95%) for the SRRs were calculated based on a Poisson model using a method described by Rothman Rothman is a surname and may refer to:
In addition to analyses for grouped counties, I also investigated the more frequently occurring cancers using individual counties as the unit of observation. Kendall's rank correlation In statistics, rank correlation is the study of relationships between different rankings on the same set of items. It deals with measuring correspondence between two rankings, and assessing the significance of this correspondence. was used as a measure of association between wheat acreage and age-standardized cancer mortality rates by county. Counties reporting less than five deaths were excluded. For selected cancer sites these significant associations were further illustrated by plotting age-adjusted cancer mortality rates versus the logarithm logarithm (lŏg`ərĭthəm) [Gr.,=relation number], number associated with a positive number, being the power to which a third number, called the base, must be raised in order to obtain the given positive number. (base 10) of wheat acreage per county. A smooth line was fitted using a spline In computer graphics, a smooth curve that runs through a series of given points. The term is often used to refer to any curve, because long before computers, a spline was a flat, pliable strip of wood or metal that was bent into a desired shape for drawing curves on paper. See Bezier and B-spline. routine. For those cancer sites showing a positive trend with increasing wheat acreage, a significantly increased mortality for at least one of the two higher tertiles of combined counties, or a positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation with wheat acreage per county, I calculated SRRs separately for age groups [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age for both sexes. I used SAS (1) (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, www.sas.com) A software company that specializes in data warehousing and decision support software based on the SAS System. Founded in 1976, SAS is one of the world's largest privately held software companies. See SAS System. software (23) for all statistical analyses. Results The distribution of harvested crops by state according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the 1982 Agricultural Census is presented in Table 1. Most of the available crop land in MN, MT, ND, and SD is used for the agriculture of wheat, corn, soybeans, and hay. Among the 262 counties in MN, ND, SD, and MT, 110 counties (42%) were excluded from the analyses because they had [is less than] 20% crop land and/or had a rural population of [is less than] 50%. These counties were located in the Rocky Mountains Rocky Mountains, major mountain system of W North America and easternmost belt of the North American cordillera, extending more than 3,000 mi (4,800 km) from central N.Mex. to NW Alaska; Mt. Elbert (14,431 ft/4,399 m) in Colorado is the highest peak. of MT; rangeland regions of MT, ND, and SD; forested and wetland regions of MN; and urban regions in each of the four states. The remaining 152 counties were divided into three groups based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county ([is less than] 23,000; 23,000-110,999; and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000). The median, minimum, and maximum were 72,000, 135, and 453,148 acres per county, respectively. Characteristics for the three groups of counties are presented in Table 2. Several differences were observed. Counties in the lowest wheat category were located in MN and SD; counties in the highest wheat category were located mostly in ND and MT. Average county and farm size and percentages of rural and farm population increased with increasing wheat acreage per county; average population-at-risk decreased. The population in counties with [is less than] 23,000 acres of wheat was slightly younger than in the two other groups of counties. Table 2. Characteristics of three groups of combined counties based on wheat acreage.
Wheat
acreage
per county
Characteristics < 23,000
Number of counties
Minnesota 33
North Dakota 0
South Dakota 17
Montana 0
Total 50
Land
Approximate land area, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 19.5 (100)
Total crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 12.1 (62)
Harvested crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 10.5 (100)
Wheat, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 0.3 (3)
Corn, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 4.1 (39)
Soybeans, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 2.4 (23)
Average size of annual population at risk
Men 454,149
Women 459,225
Population [is greater than or equal to] 14.6
65 years of age (%)
Rural population (%) 72
Living on farm (%) 20
Average farm size (acres) 300
Average 1979 median family income 15,821
Wheat acreage
per county
Characteristics 23,000-110,999
Number of counties
Minnesota 16
North Dakota 10
South Dakota 21
Montana 4
Total 51
Land
Approximate land area, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 35.3 (100)
Total crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 16.5 (47)
Harvested crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 12.9 (100)
Wheat, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 3.6 (28)
Corn, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 2.0 (16)
Soybeans, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 1.5 (11)
Average size of annual population at risk
Men 203,944
Women 205,598
Population [is greater than or equal to] 17.8
65 years of age (%)
Rural population (%) 79
Living on farm (%) 26
Average farm size (acres) 889
Average 1979 median family income 14,428
Wheat acreage
per county
[is greater than
or equal to]
Characteristics 111,000
Number of counties
Minnesota 7
North Dakota 30
South Dakota 3
Montana 11
Total 51
Land
Approximate land area, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 50.4 (100)
Total crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 29.0 (58)
Harvested crop land, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 20.2 (100)
Wheat, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 10.6 (53)
Corn, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 0.6 (3)
Soybeans, acres x [10.sup.6] (%) 0.4 (2)
Average size of annual population at risk
Men 174,945
Women 172,397
Population [is greater than or equal to] 17.6
65 years of age (%)
Rural population (%) 84
Living on farm (%) 26
Average farm size (acres) 1,221
Average 1979 median family income 15,665
Age-adjusted cancer mortality rates per 100,000 and rate ratios comparing counties with 23,000-110,999 and [is greater than]- 111,000 acres of wheat to counties with [is less than or equal to] 23,000 acres of wheat are presented in Table 3 (men) and Table 4 (women) [is greater than or equal to] 15 years of age. In general, men showed higher cancer mortality rates than women. Increasing cancer rates for the three tertiles of counties, or a statistically significant increased rate for either the second or the third tertile of counties, were observed for the following cancer sites: salivary gland salivary gland Any of the organs that secrete saliva. Three pairs of major glands secrete saliva into the mouth through distinct ducts: the parotid glands (the largest), between the ear and the back of the lower jaw; the submaxillary glands, along the side of the lower jaw; , esophagus, rectum, pancreas, larynx, prostate, kidney, thyroid, bone and jaw, Hodgkin disease Hodgkin disease or lymphoreticuloma Most common malignant lymphoma. It starts with local, painless swelling of lymph nodes and sometimes of the spleen, liver, or other organs, followed by weight loss and weakness. , and all cancers (men); oral cavity and tongue, esophagus, stomach, rectum, liver and gall bladder and bile ducts, pancreas, cervix, bladder, and other urinary organs, secondary or unspecified Adj. 1. unspecified - not stated explicitly or in detail; "threatened unspecified reprisals" specified - clearly and explicitly stated; "meals are at specified times" sites, and all cancers (women). It is conceivable con·ceive v. con·ceived, con·ceiv·ing, con·ceives v.tr. 1. To become pregnant with (offspring). 2. that stronger effects would have been obtained if the referent group had been composed of counties with a smaller wheat acreage, e.g., 10,000 acres per county. The use of grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county, as presented in Tables 3 and 4, was a more conservative approach. Table 3. Age-standardized cancer mortality rates and ratios for white men, 1980-1989.
Wheat acreage
per county
< 23,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) 6 0.13(*)
Oral cavity including tongue 111 3.08
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 212 5.66(*)
Stomach (151) 404 10.23
Large intestine (153, 159) 1,070 26.82
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 186 4.75(*)
Liver, gallbladder including 179 4.62
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 453 11.78(*)
Larynx (161) 67 1.75(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 2,499 66.69
(162, 163, 165)
Prostate (185) 1,368 31.12(*)
Kidney, ureter 272 7.04(*)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 306 7.19
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 121 3.39
Nonmelanoma skin 54 1.26
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 264 7.48
nervous system (191,192)
Thyroid (193) 10 0.27(*)
Thymus and other endocrine 11 0.32
glands (194, 164.0)
Bone including jaw (170) 19 0.56(*)
Connective and soft tissue 51 1.37
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 38 1.01(*)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 418 10.83
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 197 4.96
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 471 11.90
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 579 14.67
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 9,442 240.88(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
23,000-110,999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) 12 0.53(*)
Oral cavity including tongue 60 2.90
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 116 5.74(*)
Stomach (151) 221 10.05
Large intestine (153, 159) 599 27.43
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 103 4.94(*)
Liver, gallbladder including 112 5.48
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 266 12.82(*)
Larynx (161) 39 1.95(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 1,355 66.24
(162, 163, 165)
Prostate (185) 836 34.24(*)
Kidney, ureter 147 7.10(*)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 147 6.07
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 50 2.67
Nonmelanoma skin 28 1.24
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 131 6.96
nervous system (191,192)
Thyroid (193) 9 0.39(*)
Thymus and other endocrine 5 0.26
glands (194, 164.0)
Bone including jaw (170) 12 0.66(*)
Connective and soft tissue 20 1.00
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 32 1.81(*)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 186 8.82
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 108 4.95
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 246 11.60
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 331 15.77
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 5,205 243.23(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
23,000-110,999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Salivary gland (142) 3.96 (1.47-10.67)
Oral cavity including tongue 0.94 (0.68-1.30)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 1.01 (0.80-1.28)
Stomach (151) 0.98 (0.83-1.16)
Large intestine (153, 159) 1.02 (0.92-1.13)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.04 (0.81-1.33)
Liver, gallbladder including 1.19 (0.93-1.51)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 1.09 (0.93-1.27)
Larynx (161) 1.12 (0.75-1.67)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 0.99 (0.93-1.06)
(162, 163, 165)
Prostate (185) 1.10 (1.01-1.20)
Kidney, ureter 1.01 (0.82-1.24)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 0.84 (0.69-1.03)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 0.79 (0.56-1.11)
Nonmelanoma skin 0.98 (0.61-1.57)
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 0.93 (0.75-1.15)
nervous system (191,192)
Thyroid (193) 1.45 (0.58-3.63)
Thymus and other endocrine 0.82 (0.28-2.42)
glands (194, 164.0)
Bone including jaw (170) 1.18 (0.56-2.47)
Connective and soft tissue 0.73 (0.43-1.24)
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 1.80 (1.11-2.92)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 0.81 (0.68-0.97)
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 1.00 (0.78-1.27)
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 0.97 (0.83-1.14)
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 1.07 (0.94-1.23)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.01 (0.98-1.05)
Wheat acreage
per county
[is greater than
or equal to]
111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) 5 0.28
Oral cavity including tongue 55 3.34
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 103 5.87(*)
Stomach (151) 199 10.59
Large intestine (153, 159) 494 26.23
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 117 6.26(*)
Liver, gallbladder including 100 5.23
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 270 14.53(*)
Larynx (161) 48 2.69(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 1,169 66.25
(162, 163, 165)
Prostate (185) 808 38.64(*)
Kidney, ureter 129 7.28(*)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 129 6.36
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 41 2.68
Nonmelanoma skin 24 1.25
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 130 8.16
nervous system (191,192)
Thyroid (193) 10 0.51(*)
Thymus and other endocrine 8 0.45
glands (194, 164.0)
Bone including jaw (170) 16 1.08(*)
Connective and soft tissue 24 1.45
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 14 0.80
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 176 9.68
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 75 3.89
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 248 13.25
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 224 11.95
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 4,639 256.05(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
[is greater than
or equal to]
111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Salivary gland (142) 2.08 (0.62-6.94)
Oral cavity including tongue 1.08 (0.78-1.51)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 1.04 (0.82-1.32)
Stomach (151) 1.04 (0.87-1.23)
Large intestine (153, 159) 0.98 (0.88-1.09)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.32 (1.04-1.67)
Liver, gallbladder including 1.13 (0.88-1.45)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 1.23 (1.06-1.44)
Larynx (161) 1.54 (1.06-2.25)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 0.99 (0.93-1.07)
(162, 163, 165)
Prostate (185) 1.24 (1.14-1.36)
Kidney, ureter 1.03 (0.83-1.28)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 0.88 (0.72-1.09)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 0.79 (0.55-1.14)
Nonmelanoma skin 0.99 (0.60-1.62)
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 1.09 (0.88-1.35)
nervous system (191,192)
Thyroid (193) 1.88 (0.76-4.62)
Thymus and other endocrine 1.42 (0.56-3.59)
glands (194, 164.0)
Bone including jaw (170) 1.94 (0.98-3.84)
Connective and soft tissue 1.06 (0.64-1.75)
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 0.80 (0.43-1.49)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 0.89 (0.75-1.07)
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 0.79 (0.60-1.03)
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 1.11 (0.95-1.30)
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 0.81 (0.70-0.95)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.04 (1.00-1.08)
ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health Organization, Geneva Geneva, canton and city, Switzerland Geneva (jənē`və), Fr. Genève, canton (1990 pop. 373,019), 109 sq mi (282 sq km), SW Switzerland, surrounding the southwest tip of the Lake of Geneva. ). Comparison of grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county. Rates per 100,000 are age-adjusted and are calculated only if at least five deaths are reported in each of the two groups being compared. The average annual population at risk for combined counties with [is less than] 23,000, 23,000-110,999, and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000 acres of wheat was 338,471, 155,468, and 134,419, respectively. (*) Bold text indicates increasing cancer rates for the three tertiles of counties or a statistically significant increased rate for either the second or the third tertile of counties. Table 4. Age-standardized cancer mortality rates and ratios for white women, 1980-1989.
Wheat acreage
per county
< 23,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Oral cavity including tongue 37 0.67(*)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 58 1.06(*)
Stomach (151) 240 4.20(*)
Large intestine (153, 159) 1,070 19.87
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 131 2.19(*)
Liver, gallbladder including 241 4.65(*)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 454 8.54(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 889 20.97
(162, 163, 165)
Breast (174, 175) 1,578 36.23
Cervix uteri (180) 82 2.02(*)
Chorion, uterus 249 4.79
(179, 181, 182)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 511 11.27
broad ligament (183)
Kidney, ureter 177 3.86
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 123 1.96(*)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 85 1.99
Nonmelanoma skin 27 0.43
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 189 4.66
nervous system (191, 192)
Thyroid (193) 25 0.49
Bone including jaw (170) 22 0.54
Connective and soft tissue 56 1.28
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 29 0.72
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 389 7.71
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 171 3.47
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 373 7.20
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 555 10.53(*)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 7,824 162.65(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
23,000-110,999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Oral cavity including tongue 24 0.87(*)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 34 1.11(*)
Stomach (151) 127 4.39(*)
Large intestine (153, 159) 601 21.13
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 89 3.00(*)
Liver, gallbladder including 126 4.72(*)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 259 9.61(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 433 19.31
(162, 163, 165)
Breast (174, 175) 818 35.62
Cervix uteri (180) 40 2.21(*)
Chorion, uterus 123 4.81
(179, 181, 182)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 246 10.28
broad ligament (183)
Kidney, ureter 85 3.42
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 67 2.14(*)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 59 2.44
Nonmelanoma skin 9 0.36
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 94 4.45
nervous system (191, 192)
Thyroid (193) 12 0.38
Bone including jaw (170) 8 0.36
Connective and soft tissue 38 1.65
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 19 0.74
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 202 7.41
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 91 3.46
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 183 6.81
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 350 12.48(*)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 4,161 164.44(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
23,000-110,999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Oral cavity including tongue 1.30 (0.73-2.29)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 1.05 (0.67-1.64)
Stomach (151) 1.05 (0.82-1.33)
Large intestine (153, 159) 1.06 (0.95-1.19)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.37 (1.02-1.84)
Liver, gallbladder including 1.01 (0.80-1.28)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 1.13 (0.95-1.33)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 0.92 (0.81-1.04)
(162, 163, 165)
Breast (174, 175) 0.98 (0.90-1.08)
Cervix uteri (180) 1.09 (0.73-1.64)
Chorion, uterus 1.00 (0.80-1.27)
(179, 181, 182)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 0.91 (0.78-1.07)
broad ligament (183)
Kidney, ureter 0.89 (0.67-1.17)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 1.10 (0.79-1.51)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 1.22 (0.85-1.76)
Nonmelanoma skin 0.85 (0.36-2.01)
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 0.95 (0.73-1.24)
nervous system (191, 192)
Thyroid (193) 0.78 (0.38-1.62)
Bone including jaw (170) 0.66 (0.27-1.63)
Connective and soft tissue 1.29 (0.82-2.01)
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 1.03 (0.55-1.94)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 0.96 (0.80-1.16)
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 1.00 (0.76-1.31)
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 0.95 (0.78-1.15)
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 1.19 (1.02-1.37)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.01 (0.97-1.05)
Wheat acreage
per county
[is greater than or
equal to] 111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Oral cavity including tongue 27 1.32(*)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 27 1.17(*)
Stomach (151) 125 5.61(*)
Large intestine (153, 159) 472 19.75
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 61 2.46
Liver, gallbladder including 127 5.51(*)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 241 10.55(*)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 420 22.15
(162, 163, 165)
Breast (174, 175) 661 35.52
Cervix uteri (180) 50 3.09(*)
Chorion, uterus 95 4.37
(179, 181, 182)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 230 11.95
broad ligament (183)
Kidney, ureter 90 4.13
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 59 2.21(*)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 29 1.48
Nonmelanoma skin 13 0.54
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 95 5.39
nervous system (191, 192)
Thyroid (193) 13 0.45
Bone including jaw (170) 11 0.64
Connective and soft tissue 27 1.58
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 14 0.62
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 162 7.32
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 77 3.35
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 146 6.70
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 268 11.71
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 3,574 171.34(*)
Wheat acreage
per county
[is greater
than or equal
to] 111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Oral cavity including tongue 1.96 (1.14-3.38)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149)
Esophagus (150) 1.11 (0.67-1.83)
Stomach (151) 1.34 (1.05-1.70)
Large intestine (153, 159) 0.99 (0.88-1.12)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.12 (0.81-1.57)
Liver, gallbladder including 1.19 (0.94-1.49)
bile ducts (155, 156)
Pancreas (157) 1.24 (1.04-1.46)
Trachea, bronchus, lung 1.06 (0.93-1.19)
(162, 163, 165)
Breast (174, 175) 0.98 (0.89-1.08)
Cervix uteri (180) 1.53 (1.05-2.22)
Chorion, uterus 0.91 (0.71-1.18)
(179, 181, 182)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 1.06 (0.90-1.25)
broad ligament (183)
Kidney, ureter 1.07 (0.82-1.40)
(189, excluding 189.3)
Bladder, other urinary 1.13 (0.80-1.58)
organs (188, 189.3)
Malignant melanoma (172) 0.74 (0.47-1.16)
Nonmelanoma skin 1.27 (0.60-2.70)
(173, 154.3)
Brain, other parts of 1.16 (0.89-1.50)
nervous system (191, 192)
Thyroid (193) 0.93 (0.45-1.90)
Bone including jaw (170) 1.19 (0.53-2.69)
Connective and soft tissue 1.23 (0.75-2.02)
(171, 164.1)
Hodgkin disease (201) 0.86 (0.43-1.69)
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum 0.95 (0.78-1.16)
cell sarcoma including
other lymphoma (159.1,
200, 202.0, 202.1, 202.8,
202.9)
Multiple myeloma 0.97 (0.72-1.29)
(203, excluding 203.1)
Leukemia 0.93 (0.76-1.15)
(204-208, 202.4, 203.1)
Secondary, site unspecified, 1.11 (0.95-1.30)
not previously listed
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.05 (1.01-1.10)
ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health Organization, Geneva). Comparison of grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county. Rates per 100,000 are age-adjusted and are calculated only if at least five deaths are reported in each of the two groups being compared. The average annual population at risk for combined counties with < 23,000, 23,000-110,999, and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000 acres of wheat was 349,660, 160,200, and 134,105, respectively. (*) Bold text indicates increasing cancer rates for the three tertiles of counties or a statistically significant increased rate for either the second or the third tertile of counties. Table 5 presents mortality for men and women from rare cancers and cancer mortality in boys and girls. There was increased cancer mortality for nose and eye cancer in both men and women and brain cancer and leukemia in both boys and girls. Mortality from all cancers was also increased in boys. None of these increased cancer rates were statistically significant except cancer of the eye among women (borderline borderline /bor·der·line/ (-lin) of a phenomenon, straddling the dividing line between two categories. borderline significant). Mortality from cancers of the eye, nose and nasal cavity nasal cavity n. The cavity on either side of the nasal septum, extending from the nares to the pharynx, and lying between the floor of the cranium and the roof of the mouth. nasal cavity, n See cavity, nasal. , and oral cavity were increased in high wheat-producing counties. These cancer sites may represent mucosa mucosa /mu·co·sa/ (mu-ko´sah) [L.] mucous membrane.muco´sal mu·co·sa n. pl. mu·co·sas or mu·co·sae See mucous membrane. exposed to aerially applied pesticides. Table 5. Mortality rates and ratios during 1980-1989 for rare cancers in white men and women and cancers in white boys and girls.
Wheat acreage/county
[is greater than or
<72,000 equal to] 72,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate n Rate SRR (CI)
Men
Nose, nasal cavities,
middle ear, accessory
sinuses (160) 16 0.29 11 0.44 1.49 (0.67-3.31)
Breast (174, 175) 16 0.29 7 0.26 0.89 (0.36-2.19)
Eye (190) 8 0.15 7 0.30 1.95 (0.69-5.47)
Women
Salivary gland (142) 17 0.28 6 0.16 0.58 (0.20-1.62)
Nose, nasal cavities,
middle ear, accessory
sinuses (160) 15 0.20 8 0.37 1.81 (0.72-4.55)
Eye (190) 9 0.13 9 0.36 2.77 (1.00-7.63)
Thymus and other
endocrine glands
(194, 164.0) 16 0.31 9 0.33 1.07 (0.45-2.56)
Boys
Brain, other parts of
nervous system
(191,192) 13 0.87 9 1.58 1.82 (0.78-4.26)
Leukemia (204-208,
202.4, 203.1) 29 1.92 15 2.69 1.40 (0.75-2.62)
All cancers (140-208) 67 4.46 34 6.14 1.38 (0.91-2.08)
Girls
Brain, other parts of
nervous system
(191,192) 8 0.59 5 0.96 1.63 (0.53-4.99)
Leukemia (204-208,
202.4, 203.1) 10 0.69 5 0.98 1.43 (0.49-4.18)
All cancers (140-208) 38 2.68 14 2.73 1.02 (0.55-1.88)
ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health rganization, Geneva). Comparison of grouped counties based on the median of wheat acreage per county. Rates per 100,000 are age-adjusted, and are calculated only if at least five deaths are reported in each of the two groups being compared. The average annual population-at-risk for combined counties with <72,000 and [is greater than or equal to] 72,000 acres of wheat were 447,300 and 181,058, respectively (men); 462,676 and 181,289, respectively (women); 149,973 and 54,707, respectively (boys); and 141,707 and 51,548, respectively (girls). Table 6 presents correlations between age-standardized cancer mortality rates and wheat acreage per county for cancers with [is greater than] 400 deaths reported for the combined 152 counties during 1980-1989. I excluded counties with less than five deaths for the cancer being analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. . Statistically significant correlations were observed for the following sites: stomach, rectum, pancreas, prostate, brain, and leukemia (men), stomach, pancreas, ovary, and secondary and unspecified cancers (women). Figure 1A-F illustrates cancer mortality rates and wheat acreage by county for some of these results: pancreas, prostate, and leukemia in men and pancreas, ovary, and secondary and unspecified sites in women. [Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Table 6. Mortality for frequent cancers during 1980-1989.
Cancer
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) Counties deaths(n)
(n)
Men
Esophagus (150) 32 257
Stomach (151) 68 656
Large intestine (153, 159) 125 2,093
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 29 223
Pancreas (157) 81 829
Trachea, bronchus, lung
(162, 163, 165) 146 5,004
Prostate (185) 131 2,959
Kidney, ureter (189,
excluding 189.3) 43 358
Bladder, other urinary
organs (188, 189.3) 44 373
Brain, other parts of nervous
system (191,192) 48 379
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum cell
sarcoma including other
lymphoma (159.1, 200, 202.0,
202.1, 202.8, 202.9) 61 623
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, 203.1) 82 861
Secondary, site unspecified, not
previously listed (152, 158,
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9) 88 1,023
All cancers (140-208) 152 19,387
Women
Stomach (151) 40 314
Large intestine (153, 159) 117 2,062
Liver, gallbladder including
bile ducts (155, 156) 38 314
Pancreas (157) 76 794
Trachea, bronchus, lung
(162, 163, 165) 109 1,634
Breast (174, 175) 132 3,007
Ovary, fallopian tube, broad
ligament (183) 70 811
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum cell
sarcoma including other
lymphoma (159.1, 200, 202.0,
202.1, 202.8, 202.9) 63 589
Leukemia (204-208,
202.4, 203.1) 63 566
Secondary, site unspecified, not
previously listed (152, 158,
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9) 92 1,051
All cancers (140-208) 150 15,606
Kendall's tau-b
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) coefficient p-Value
Men
Esophagus (150) 0.10 0.43
Stomach (151) 0.28 0.0008
Large intestine (153, 159) 0.01 0.90
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 0.32 0.016
Pancreas (157) 0.32 0.0001
Trachea, bronchus, lung
(162, 163, 165) -0.07 0.21
Prostate (185) 0.22 0.0002
Kidney, ureter (189,
excluding 189.3) 0.09 0.40
Bladder, other urinary
organs (188, 189.3) 0.04 0.69
Brain, other parts of nervous
system (191,192) 0.21 0.03
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum cell
sarcoma including other
lymphoma (159.1, 200, 202.0,
202.1, 202.8, 202.9) 0.07 0.40
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, 203.1) 0.27 0.0003
Secondary, site unspecified, not
previously listed (152, 158,
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9) 0.02 0.82
All cancers (140-208) 0.05 0.39
Women
Stomach (151) 0.26 0.02
Large intestine (153, 159) 0.02 0.76
Liver, gallbladder including
bile ducts (155, 156) 0.19 0.08
Pancreas (157) 0.26 0.0001
Trachea, bronchus, lung
(162, 163, 165) 0.10 0.14
Breast (174, 175) 0.00 0.96
Ovary, fallopian tube, broad
ligament (183) 0.18 0.03
Lymphosarcoma, reticulum cell
sarcoma including other
lymphoma (159.1, 200, 202.0,
202.1, 202.8, 202.9) 0.13 0.12
Leukemia (204-208,
202.4, 203.1) 0.16 0.07
Secondary, site unspecified, not
previously listed (152, 158,
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9) 0.19 0.006
All cancers (140-208) 0.08 0.14
ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health Organization, Geneva). Correlations between age-standardized cancer rates and wheat acreage by county. Those cancer sites showing a trend of increasing cancer mortality with increasing wheat acreage for the three groups of counties, a statistically significant increase in either the second or third tertile of grouped counties (Tables 3 and 4), or a significant correlation between cancer mortality and wheat acreage per county (Table 6), were further analyzed by age ([is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age), as presented in Tables 7 and 8 for men and women, respectively. If an effect was observed for all ages for only one of the sexes, the analyses by age group were still done for both sexes so that mortality rates for the same cancer sites could be compared between men and women. Subjects [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age had higher rates than those [is less than] 65 years of age. Many of the trends showing increased cancer mortality with increasing wheat acreage [observed for all ages (Tables 3 and 4)] were also observed for one or both age groups (Tables 7 and 8): salivary gland (men [is greater than or equal to] 65), oral cavity including tongue (women [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65), stomach (women [is less than] 65), rectum (men [is greater than or equal to] 65), pancreas (men [is greater than or equal to] 65; women [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65), cervix uteri cervix u·ter·i n. The lower part of the uterus extending from the isthmus of the uterus into the vagina; neck of uterus; neck of womb. (women [is less than] 65), prostate (men [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65), kidney and ureter (men [is less than] 65), bladder and other urinary organs (women [is greater than or equal to] 65), thyroid (men, [is greater than or equal to] 65; women [is greater than or equal to] 65), bone (men [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65), and Hodgkin disease (men [is less than] 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65; women [is greater than or equal to] 65). Trends for thyroid cancer Thyroid Cancer Definition Thyroid cancer is a disease in which the cells of the thyroid gland become abnormal, grow uncontrollably, and form a mass of cells called a tumor. and Hodgkin disease were observed for women [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age, although no effect was seen for women of all ages (Tables 4 and 8). Although cancer mortality rates were generally higher in men for either age group, women [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age had a higher rate for thyroid cancer mortality then men of the same age. For other sites showing trends of increasing mortality rates for all ages, like larynx in men and esophagus, rectum, liver, and secondary and unspecified sites in women, the trend was not observed for either age group, although increased rates were observed for either one of the two higher wheat groups, some of which were statistically significant. Table 7. Age-standardized cancer mortality rates and ratios for selected cancer sites for white men <65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age, 1980-1989. Wheat acreage/county
Wheat acreage/county
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) Age (years)
Salivary gland (142) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Oral cavity including tongue <65
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) [is greater than
or equal to]65
Esophagus (150) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Stomach (151) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Liver, gallbladder including <65
bile ducts (155, 156) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Pancreas (157) <65
[is greater than
or equal to]
Larynx (161) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Prostate (185) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Kidney, ureter (189, <65
excluding 189.3) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Bladder, other urinary organs <65
(188, 189.3) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Brain, other parts of nervous <65
system (191, 192) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Thyroid (193) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Bone including jaw (170) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Hodgkin disease (201) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Leukemia (204-208, <65
202.4, 203.1) [is greater than
or equal to] 65
Secondary, site unspecified, <65
not previously listed (152, 158, [is greater than
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9) or equal to] 65
All cancers (140-208) <65
[is greater than
or equal to] 65
Wheat acreage/county
<23,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) 6 0.97
Oral cavity including tongue 50 1.90
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 61 10.43
Esophagus (150) 65 2.50
147 25.41
Stomach (151) 98 3.65
306 51.26
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 50 1.91
136 22.52
Liver, gallbladder including 46 1.78
bile ducts (155, 156) 133 22.31
Pancreas (157) 127 4.86
326 54.98
Larynx (161) 15 0.59
52 8.93
Prostate (185) 82 3.02
1,286 206.47
Kidney, ureter (189, 70 2.71
excluding 189.3) 202 34.08
Bladder, other urinary organs 32 1.24
(188, 189.3) 274 44.36
Brain, other parts of nervous 140 5.17
system (191, 192) 124 21.90
Thyroid (193) 6 1.02
Bone including jaw (170) 12 0.46
7 1.17
Hodgkin disease (201) 20 0.68
18 3.04
Leukemia (204-208, 126 4.70
202.4, 203.1) 345 56.81
Secondary, site unspecified, 146 5.54
not previously listed (152, 158, 433 71.67
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 2,369 89.78
7,073 1184.10
Wheat acreage/county
23,000-110,9999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) 11 3.36
Oral cavity including tongue 20 1.42
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 40 12.13
Esophagus (150) 36 2.73
80 24.51
Stomach (151) 41 3.15
180 53.13
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 27 2.12
76 22.54
Liver, gallbladder including 37 2.80
bile ducts (155, 156) 75 22.20
Pancreas (157) 75 5.64
191 57.64
Larynx (161) 15 1.07
24 7.44
Prostate (185) 55 3.78
781 224.38
Kidney, ureter (189, 45 3.32
excluding 189.3) 102 30.70
Bladder, other urinary organs 10 0.72
(188, 189.3) 137 39.46
Brain, other parts of nervous 56 4.29
system (191, 192) 75 23.63
Thyroid (193) 7 2.02
Bone including jaw (170) 7 0.53
5 1.43
Hodgkin disease (201) 19 1.46
13 4.01
Leukemia (204-208, 56 4.53
202.4, 203.1) 190 55.71
Secondary, site unspecified, 81 6.16
not previously listed (152, 158, 250 75.72
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1,218 91.60
3,987 1189.70
Wheat acreage/county
23,000-110,9999
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Salivary gland (142) 3.46 (1.27-9.44)
Oral cavity including tongue 0.75 (0.44-1.26)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 1.16 (0.78-1.74)
Esophagus (150) 1.09 (0.73-1.65)
0.96 (0.73-1.27)
Stomach (151) 0.86 (0.60-1.25)
1.04 (0.86-1.25)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.11 (0.69-1.78)
1.00 (0.75-1.33)
Liver, gallbladder including 1.57 (1.01-2.42)
bile ducts (155, 156) 1.00 (0.75-1.32)
Pancreas (157) 1.16 (0.87-1.55)
1.05 (0.88-1.25)
Larynx (161) 1.80 (0.87-3.70)
0.83 (0.51-1.35)
Prostate (185) 1.25 (0.89-1.76)
1.09 (0.99-1.19)
Kidney, ureter (189, 1.23 (0.84-1.79)
excluding 189.3) 0.90 (0.71-1.14)
Bladder, other urinary organs 0.58 (0.29-1.20)
(188, 189.3) 0.89 (0.72-1.09)
Brain, other parts of nervous 0.83 (0.61-1.13)
system (191, 192) 1.08 (0.81-1.44)
Thyroid (193) 1.99 (0.66-5.95)
Bone including jaw (170) 1.16 (0.45-2.96)
1.22 (0.39-3.86)
Hodgkin disease (201) 2.15 (1.14-4.07)
1.32 (0.64-2.70)
Leukemia (204-208, 0.96 (0.70-1.32)
202.4, 203.1) 0.98 (0.82-1.17)
Secondary, site unspecified, 1.11 (0.85-1.46)
not previously listed (152, 158, 1.06 (0.90-1.24)
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.02 (0.95-1.09)
1.00 (0.97-1.04)
Wheat acreage/county
[is greater than or
equal to] 111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) n Rate
Salivary gland (142) ND --
Oral cavity including tongue 24 2.07
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 31 11.21
Esophagus (150) 29 2.52
74 26.81
Stomach (151) 45 3.85
154 52.68
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 24 2.07
93 32.41
Liver, gallbladder including 18 1.47
bile ducts (155, 156) 82 28.66
Pancreas (157) 60 5.11
210 73.33
Larynx (161) 10 0.86
38 14.16
Prostate (185) 54 4.30
754 253.04
Kidney, ureter (189, 43 3.61
excluding 189.3) 86 30.16
Bladder, other urinary organs 13 1.02
(188, 189.3) 116 39.68
Brain, other parts of nervous 65 5.66
system (191, 192) 65 23.75
Thyroid (193) 8 2.58
Bone including jaw (170) 10 0.92
6 2.11
Hodgkin disease (201) ND --
11 4.10
Leukemia (204-208, 56 4.77
202.4, 203.1) 192 66.19
Secondary, site unspecified, 48 4.00
not previously listed (152, 158, 176 61.58
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1,065 90.84
3,574 1243.80
Wheat acreage/county
[is greater than
or equal to] 111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9 code) SRR (CI)
Salivary gland (142) --
Oral cavity including tongue 1.09 (0.67-1.79)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 1.07 (0.70-1.66)
Esophagus (150) 1.01 (0.65-1.57)
1.05 (0.80-1.40)
Stomach (151) 1.05 (0.74-1.51)
1.03 (0.85-1.25)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 1.08 (0.66-1.77)
1.44 (1.10-1.88)
Liver, gallbladder including 0.82 (0.48-1.43)
bile ducts (155, 156) 1.28 (0.97-1.69)
Pancreas (157) 1.05 (0.77-1.43)
1.33 (1.12-1.59)
Larynx (161) 1.44 (0.64-3.23)
1.58 (1.04-2.41)
Prostate (185) 1.42 (1.01-2.01)
1.23 (1.12-1.34)
Kidney, ureter (189, 1.33 (0.91-1.95)
excluding 189.3) 0.88 (0.69-1.14)
Bladder, other urinary organs 0.83 (0.43-1.58)
(188, 189.3) 0.89 (0.72-1.11)
Brain, other parts of nervous 1.10 (0.81-1.47)
system (191, 192) 1.08 (0.80-1.47)
Thyroid (193) 2.54 (0.88-7.35)
Bone including jaw (170) 2.00 (0.86-4.65)
1.80 (0.60-5.39)
Hodgkin disease (201) --
1.35 (0.63-2.86)
Leukemia (204-208, 1.01 (0.74-1.39)
202.4, 203.1) 1.16 (0.98-1.39)
Secondary, site unspecified, 0.72 (0.52-1.00)
not previously listed (152, 158, 0.86 (0.72-1.02)
159.2-159.9, 164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1.01 (0.94-1.09)
1.05 (1.01-1.09)
Abbreviations: ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health Organization, Geneva); ND, not done ([is less than] 5 deaths reported per group). Comparison of grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county. Rates per 100,000 are age-adjusted and are calculated only if at least five deaths are reported in each of the two groups being compared. The annual population-at-risk for combined counties with [is less than] 23,000, 23,000-110,999, and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000 acres of wheat for those <65 years of age: 281,187, 123,286, and 106,711, respectively; for those [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age: 57,284, 32,182, and 27,708, respectively. Table 8. Age-standardized cancer mortality rates and ratios for selected cancer sites for white women < 65 and [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age, 1980-1989.
Cancer site (ICD-9) Age (years)
Oral cavity including tongue < 65
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Esophagus (150) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Stomach (151) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Liver, gallbladder including < 65
bile ducts (155, 156) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Pancreas (157) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Cervix uteri (180) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Ovary, fallopian tube, < 65
broad ligament (183) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Kidney, ureter (189, < 65
excluding 189.3) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Bladder, other urinary < 65
organs (188, 189.3) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Brain, other parts of < 65
nervous system (191, 192) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Thyroid (193) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Bone including jaw (170) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Hodgkin disease (201) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, < 65
203.1) [is greater than or equal to] 65
Secondary, site unspecified, < 65
not previously listed [is greater than or equal to] 65
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) < 65
[is greater than or equal to] 65
Wheat acreage/
county
< 23,000
Cancer site (ICD-9) n Rate
Oral cavity including tongue 7 0.26
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 30 3.25
Esophagus (150) 8 0.31
50 5.71
Stomach (151) 33 1.26
207 22.53
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 17 0.61
114 12.05
Liver, gallbladder including 37 1.40
bile ducts (155, 156) 204 24.96
Pancreas (157) 77 2.90
377 43.72
Cervix uteri (180) 42 1.58
40 4.80
Ovary, fallopian tube, 149 5.61
broad ligament (183) 362 46.56
Kidney, ureter (189, 50 1.85
excluding 189.3) 127 16.41
Bladder, other urinary 11 0.39
organs (188, 189.3) 112 11.72
Brain, other parts of 90 3.28
nervous system (191, 192) 99 13.31
Thyroid (193) 19 2.12
Bone including jaw (170) 12 1.52
Hodgkin disease (201) 14 0.52
15 1.99
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, 89 3.33
203.1) 284 31.30
Secondary, site unspecified, 115 4.35
not previously listed 440 49.09
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 2,103 79.23
5,721 683.33
Wheat acreage/county
23,000-110,999
Cancer site (ICD-9) n Rate SRR (CI)
Oral cavity including tongue 6 0.43 1.65 (0.55-4.98)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 18 3.64 1.12 (0.60-2.07)
Esophagus (150) ND -- --
32 7.26 1.27 (0.80-2.02)
Stomach (151) 24 1.85 1.47 (0.86-2.50)
103 20.23 0.90 (0.70-1.15)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 13 0.96 1.57 (0.76-3.26)
76 15.76 1.31 (0.96-1.78)
Liver, gallbladder including 29 2.08 1.49 (0.91-2.43)
bile ducts (155, 156) 97 21.18 0.85 (0.66-1.09)
Pancreas (157) 49 3.71 1.28 (0.89-1.84)
210 46.42 1.06 (0.89-1.27)
Cervix uteri (180) 25 2.05 1.30 (0.79-2.14)
15 3.22 0.67 (0.36-1.26)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 64 4.79 0.85 (0.63-1.15)
broad ligament (183) 182 44.54 0.96 (0.80-1.15)
Kidney, ureter (189, 20 1.55 0.84 (0.49-1.41)
excluding 189.3) 65 15.09 0.92 (0.68-1.25)
Bladder, other urinary 8 0.54 1.37 (0.55-3.45)
organs (188, 189.3) 59 12.15 1.04 (0.75-1.44)
Brain, other parts of 41 3.01 0.92 (0.63-1.33)
nervous system (191, 192) 53 13.43 1.01 (0.72-1.42)
Thyroid (193) 11 2.39 1.13 (0.52-2.44)
Bone including jaw (170) 5 1.01 0.67 (0.23-1.94)
Hodgkin disease (201) 5 0.38 0.74 (0.26-2.09)
14 3.00 1.51 (0.71-3.21)
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, 38 2.95 0.89 (0.60-1.30)
203.1) 145 30.90 0.99 (0.80-1.22)
Secondary, site unspecified, 63 4.87 1.12 (0.82-1.53)
not previously listed 287 59.97 1.22 (1.04-1.43)
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 1,080 81.59 1.03 (0.96-1.11)
3,081 681.58 1.00 (0.95-1.04)
Wheat acreage/county
[is greater than or equal to]
111,000
Cancer site (ICD-9) n Rate SRR (CI)
Oral cavity including tongue 9 0.78 2.97 (1.10-8.06)
(141, 143-146, 148, 149) 18 4.73 1.45 (0.79-2.69)
Esophagus (150) 6 0.53 1.69 (0.58-4.89)
21 5.20 0.91 (0.54-1.55)
Stomach (151) 34 3.01 2.39 (1.48-3.88)
91 21.80 0.97 (0.75-1.25)
Rectum (154 excluding 154.3) 9 0.77 1.27 (0.56-2.86)
52 13.01 1.08 (0.77-1.52)
Liver, gallbladder including 19 1.65 1.18 (0.68-2.07)
bile ducts (155, 156) 108 29.61 1.19 (0.93-1.51)
Pancreas (157) 50 4.13 1.42 (0.99-2.04)
191 50.62 1.16 (0.97-1.39)
Cervix uteri (180) 26 2.40 1.52 (0.93-2.49)
24 7.41 1.54 (0.92-2.60)
Ovary, fallopian tube, 73 6.40 1.14 (0.86-1.51)
broad ligament (183) 157 46.55 1.00 (0.82-1.21)
Kidney, ureter (189, 22 1.81 0.98 (0.59-1.63)
excluding 189.3) 68 18.59 1.13 (0.83-1.54)
Bladder, other urinary 6 0.52 1.33 (0.49-3.61)
organs (188, 189.3) 53 12.71 1.08 (0.77-1.53)
Brain, other parts of 42 3.79 1.16 (0.80-1.67)
nervous system (191, 192) 53 15.37 1.15 (0.82-1.63)
Thyroid (193) 13 3.29 1.55 (0.74-3.26)
Bone including jaw (170) 7 1.72 1.14 (0.42-3.04)
Hodgkin disease (201) ND -- --
12 3.30 1.66 (0.76-3.61)
Leukemia (204-208, 202.4, 38 3.27 0.98 (0.67-1.44)
203.1) 108 28.07 0.90 (0.71-1.13)
Secondary, site unspecified, 51 4.30 0.99 (0.71-1.38)
not previously listed 217 57.98 1.18 (1.00-1.40)
(152, 158, 159.2-159.9,
164.2-164.9)
All cancers (140-208) 973 85.16 1.07 (1.00-1.16)
2,601 709.28 1.04 (0.99-1.09)
Abbreviations: ICD-9, International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision (World Health Organization, Geneva); ND, not done ([is less than] 5 deaths reported per group). Comparison of grouped counties based on tertiles of wheat acreage per county. Rates per 100,000 are age-adjusted and are calculated only if at least five deaths are reported in each of the two groups being compared. The average annual population-at-risk for combined counties with [is less than] 23,000, 23,000-110,999, and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000 acres of wheat: < 65 years of age: 273,995, 119,295, and 100,567,; respectively; [is greater than or equal to] 65 years of age: 75,665, 40,905, and 33,538, respectively. A previous study (17) reported significantly increased cancer mortality in Northwestern MN for prostate, thyroid, and bone for men and eye for women. The comparison region in that study was the urban/forested region of MN. To ensure that MN was not driving the results in the current study, I calculated the SRRs for these four cancer sites separately for MN and combined ND, SD, and MT and compared counties with [is greater than or equal to] 72,000 acres of wheat to counties with [is less than] 72,000 acres. The SRRs for MN and combined ND, SD, and MT, respectively, for men were prostate, 1.14 (CI, 1.00-1.30) and 1.23 (CI, 1.07-1.41) and bone, 2.79 (CI, 1.09-7.15) and 1.82 (CI, 0.66-4.99). Because only two deaths were reported for cancer of the thyroid in men and eye cancer in women for the referent group of combined counties in MT, ND, and SD, I did not calculate SRRs for these two cancer sites. These numbers are probably low because these two cancers are rare and the population size of combined ND, SD, and MT is low (less than half of the MN population). The results for prostate and bone cancer mortality do not indicate that MN is driving the results. Discussion This ecologic study investigated cancer mortality rates in counties of MN, ND, SD, and MT, where the population was mostly rural and where at least 20% of the available land was dedicated to crop land. Because of these inclusion criteria
Inclusion criteria are a set of conditions that must be met in order to participate in a clinical trial. , the percentage of rural and farm population was higher in this study population of 152 counties than if all 262 counties had been included. The study population of the combined 152 counties can be categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat as follows: rural and living on farms, 23%; rural not living on farms, 54%; and nonrural, 23%. For the combined 262 counties these percentages would have been as follows: rural and living on farms, 10%; rural not living on farms, 29%; and nonrural, 61%. It is conceivable that the "rural not living on farms" population included people working on a farm. Because occupational information was not available for this mortality dataset See data set. , it was not possible to check how many of the cancer deaths could be attributed to farmers and other agricultural workers. Although people living or working on a farm most likely have the highest exposures to pesticides, rural people not living or working on a farm may be exposed to drift of aerially applied pesticides or through their well water. Residents of counties where the main crop was spring or durum wheat were at an increased mortality risk for several types of cancer. This gave rise to the question of whether other factors associated with wheat could have played a role. Percent rural and farm population and average farm size were associated with wheat acreage (Table 2). The correlation coefficients Correlation Coefficient A measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated. The correlation coefficient is calculated as: for wheat acreage per county with percent rural and farm population were 0.23 (p = 0.0001) and 0.13 (p = 0.02), respectively. Average farm size per county was correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with wheat acreage (correlation coefficient = 0.47, p = 0.0001). We would expect farms to be large when large plots of land are available for wheat agriculture in these regions. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , farm size may be a consequence of land available for wheat agriculture. Farmers are generally exposed to a variety of hazardous substances such as pesticides, fuels, oils, engine exhausts, and organic solvents (12). Farm families living on large farms have potentially higher exposures to these compounds than families living on small farms. Methods of pesticide application may also be different on large farms. Age is a risk factor for cancer mortality. People living in counties with [is greater than] 23,000 acres of wheat were slightly older than subjects living in counties with less wheat (Table 2). I used age standardization in the analyses to adjust for these differences. Another factor to be considered is delayed diagnosis, which may occur among the rural population because of long distances from medical facilities. In that case, we would expect increased mortality for all cancer sites. This was not observed in the current study. This study had other limitations. The use of wheat acreage as a surrogate measure of exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides was a major disadvantage because it provided no information on when and how often exposures occurred. Migration into or out of counties was unknown, although residential stability in farming communities tends to be higher than in urban communities (12). Individual information on smoking, alcohol use, and ethnic background was not available. Smoking-related cancers (lung, larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, and bladder) are increased in urban populations and decreased in farmers (9,12,24,25). Mortality rates for these cancer sites for the 60 counties that were excluded from the analyses because of their mostly urban population confirmed this finding. Using the same referent group of rural counties as in Tables 3 and 4 ([is less than] 23,000 acres of wheat per county), age-standardized rates per 100,000 and SRR SRR Short-Range Radar SRR System Requirements Review SRR Shaped Round Robin (queuing protocol for Cisco routers) SRR Special Reconnaissance Regiment (British Army) SRR Split Ring Resonator (CI) were obtained for the combined 60 urban counties as follows: * Trachea trachea (trā`kēə) or windpipe, principal tube that carries air to and from the lungs. It is about 4 1-2 in. (11.4 cm) long and about 3-4 in. (1.9 cm) in diameter in the adult. and bronchus bronchus: see lungs. and lung--men: rate = 84.13, SRR = 1.26 (CI, 1.21-1.32); women: rate = 31.52, SRR = 1.50 (CI, 1.39-1.62) * Larynx--men: rate = 3.02, SRR = 1.73 (CI, 1.33-2.25); women: rate = 0.49, SRR = 1.52 (CI, 0.83-2.78) * Oral cavity--men: rate = 4.80, SRR = 1.56 (CI, 1.27-1.92); women: rate = 1.72, SRR = 2.55 (CI, 1.75-3.71) * Esophagus--men: rate = 7.04, SRR = 1.24 (CI, 1.07-1.45); women: rate = 1.65, SRR = 1.55 (CI, 1.15-2.11) * Bladder--men: rate = 8.19, SRR = 1.14 (CI, 1.00-1.30); women: rate = 2.31, SRR = 1.18 (CI, 0.95-1.46). In the current study with a mostly rural population, there was increased mortality for some of these same cancer sites in counties with higher wheat acreage: oral cavity (women) and larynx (men) were significantly increased; there were nonsignificant non·sig·nif·i·cant adj. 1. Not significant. 2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of random occurrence. increases for esophagus and bladder (Tables 3 and 4). Because there was no effect for lung cancer lung cancer, cancer that originates in the tissues of the lungs. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States in both men and women. Like other cancers, lung cancer occurs after repeated insults to the genetic material of the cell. and because there is no reason to suspect that smoking would be related to acres of wheat grown, the increases observed for these cancer sites might be related to herbicide exposure. However, increased lung cancer mortality in association with pesticide exposure cannot be ruled out. An increase of lung cancer mortality was observed for Florida Florida, state, United States Florida (flôr`ĭdə, flŏr`–), state in the extreme SE United States. A long, low peninsula between the Atlantic Ocean (E) and the Gulf of Mexico (W), Florida is bordered by Georgia and pest control pest control n → control m de plagas pest control n → lutte f contre les nuisibles pest control pest n workers with increasing duration of licensure licensure (lī´s  nsh after
adjusting for smoking (26). These subjects were exposed to several
pesticides, including phenoxyacetic acids. This Florida study (26)
illustrates the need to adjust for smoking when lung cancer in farmers,
which may be associated with pesticide exposure, is compared to lung
cancer in an urban population, which is mostly smoking related (27). In
the current study the percent rural population for the referent group
(72%) was lower than for the two other groups of counties
(23,000-110,999 and [is greater than or equal to] 111,000 acres of
wheat; 79 and 84%, respectively). It is conceivable that lung cancer
mortality in the referent group is associated with smoking because of
its larger percentage of nonrural population (38%), whereas lung cancer
mortality in the two more rural groups of counties may be associated
with higher herbicide exposure. If this were the case, the potential
effect from herbicide exposure on lung cancer mortality could only be
studied in these data if smoking information were available.Because this is an ecologic study, there is the possibility of an ecologic fallacy fallacy, in logic, a term used to characterize an invalid argument. Strictly speaking, it refers only to the transition from a set of premises to a conclusion, and is distinguished from falsity, a value attributed to a single statement. , which occurs when the association observed for counties or groups of counties does not hold for individuals (8,11,28,29). However, ecologic studies do have some advantages. The current study was based on existing databases and included a large number of observations. Therefore, besides being relatively inexpensive, this study allowed investigation of rare cancers and analyses for trends. Results from this study will generate hypotheses for more resource-intensive and definitive cohort cohort /co·hort/ (ko´hort) 1. in epidemiology, a group of individuals sharing a common characteristic and observed over time in the group. 2. and case-control studies case-control study, n an investigation employing an epidemiologic approach in which previously existing incidents of a medical condition are used in lieu of gathering new information from a randomized population. where exposure information can be determined for individual subjects, thereby avoiding ecologic fallacies This is a list of fallacies. Formal fallacies Formal fallacies are arguments that are fallacious due to an error in their form or technical structure.
Although some of the results in the current study were undoubtedly due to chance, the fact that trends of increased mortality rates were observed with increasing wheat acreage for several cancer sites strengthens the likelihood of an association. In addition, these results should be considered in conjunction with other studies. Many of the same cancer sites increased in the current study have been reported as being increased both in farmers in general and in production workers occupationally exposed to chlorophenoxy herbicides and their contaminants (6,9,12,24,30-35). In a review of cancer etiology etiology /eti·ol·o·gy/ (e?te-ol´ah-je) 1. the science dealing with causes of disease. 2. the cause of a disease. in farmers, Blair Blair , Anthony Charles Lynton Known as "Tony" Born 1953. British lawyer, politician, and Labour Party leader who was elected prime minister in 1997. et al. (30) noted that several cancers with excessive rates among farmers have also been on the rise in the general population. Therefore, studies of farmers, who have generally better defined and higher exposures to farm chemicals than the general population, might contribute to an explanation for these increases. Excess mortality from several cancers was observed for farmers--Hodgkin disease; non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) describes a group of cancers arising from lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. It is distinct from Hodgkin lymphoma in its pathologic features, epidemiology, common sites of involvement, clinical behavior, and treatment. ; multiple myeloma multiple myeloma A malignant proliferation of abnormal plasma cells that populate the marrow-containing bones of the body. The affected plasma cells produce myeloma protein, a monoclonal antibody that replaces normal antibodies in the blood, thereby increasing susceptibility ; leukemia; melanoma melanoma: see skin cancer. melanoma Dark-coloured malignant tumour of skin cells that produce the protective skin-darkening pigment melanin. ; other skin cancer; and cancers of the lip, eye, stomach, rectum, brain, connective connective - An operator used in logic to combine two logical formulas. See first order logic. and soft tissue, pancreas, kidney, bone, thyroid, prostate, and testis testis (tĕs`tĭs) or testicle (tĕs`tĭkəl), one of a pair of glands that produce the male reproductive cells, or sperm. (9,12,24,30-33). In a cancer incidence study of Florida pesticide applicators, statistically significant increases were observed for cancer of the prostate, testis, and cervix (34). In a cancer mortality study of Florida pesticide applicators by the same authors, statistically significant increases were observed for prostate cancer prostate cancer, cancer originating in the prostate gland. Prostate cancer is the leading malignancy in men in the United States and is second only to lung cancer as a cause of cancer death in men. only (35). Among children, leukemia and brain tumors Brain Tumor Definition A brain tumor is an abnormal growth of tissue in the brain. Unlike other tumors, brain tumors spread by local extension and rarely metastasize (spread) outside the brain. are common malignancies that have been associated with pesticide exposure of the parents or the children themselves (9,11,36,37). Some of the increases may be explained by factors other than farm chemicals. For example, farmers are occupationally exposed to sunlight, which is a known risk factor for melanoma and eye cancer (25,30). A review of several case-control Case-control studies are one type of epidemiological study design. It is used to identify factors that may contribute to a medical condition by comparing a group of patients who have that condition with a group of patients that do not. and cohort studies A cohort study is a form of longitudinal study used in medicine and social science. It is one type of study design. In medicine, it is usually undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and disease; failure to refute investigating the effect of herbicides (mostly phenoxy herbicides A phenoxy herbicide is any member of a family of chemicals related to the growth hormone indoleacetic acid (IAA). When sprayed on broad-leaf plants they induce rapid, uncontrolled growth, eventually killing them. ) on cancer observed that herbicide exposure was associated with increased risks for non-Hodgkin lymphoma; soft-tissue sarcoma sarcoma (särkō`mə), highly malignant tumor arising in connective- and muscle-cell tissue. It is the result of oncogenes (the cancer causing genes of some viruses) and proto-oncogenes (cancer causing genes in human cells). ; cancer of the colon colon, in anatomy colon, in anatomy: see intestine. colon, in punctuation colon, in writing: see punctuation. colon Segment that makes up most of the large intestine. , nose, prostate, and ovary; leukemia; and multiple myeloma (27). A follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan study based on a multicenter multicenter adjective Referring to that which occurs in many hospitals, as in a randomized multicenter study registry The configuration database in all 32-bit versions of Windows that contains settings for the hardware and software in the PC it is installed in. The Registry is made up of the SYSTEM.DAT and USER.DAT files. Many settings previously stored in the WIN.INI and SYSTEM. of chlorophenoxy herbicide production workers and sprayers created by the International Agency for Research on Cancer The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC, or CIRC in its French acronym) is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations. Its main offices are in Lyon, France. (IARC) was conducted; the study included nearly 22,000 subjects with an average follow-up of 22 years (6). Nearly 14,000 subjects had been involved in the production of 2,4,5-T and were therefore probably exposed to its contaminant TCDD. Increased mortality (not statistically significant unless otherwise noted) was observed for the following sites: all cancers (statistically significant), oral cavity and pharynx pharynx (fâr`ĭngks), area of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts which lies between the mouth and the esophagus. In humans, the pharynx is a cone-shaped tube about 4 1-2 in. (11.43 cm) long. , esophagus, rectum, peritoneum peritoneum (pĕrətənē`əm), multilayered membrane which lines the abdominal cavity, and supports and covers the organs within it. The part of the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity is called the parietal peritoneum. and unspecific Adj. 1. unspecific - not detailed or specific; "a broad rule"; "the broad outlines of the plan"; "felt an unspecific dread" broad general - applying to all or most members of a category or group; "the general public"; "general assistance"; "a general rule"; digestive Ulcers (Digestive) Definition In general, an ulcer is any eroded area of skin or a mucous membrane, marked by tissue disintegration. In common usage, however, ulcer usually is used to refer to disorders in the upper digestive tract. organs, larynx, lung, other respiratory organs (statistically significant), connective and soft tissue, non-melanoma skin, female breast, male breast, endometrium endometrium /en·do·me·tri·um/ (-me´tre-um) pl. endome´tria the mucous membrane lining the uterus. en·do·me·tri·um n. pl. and uterus, prostate, testis, other male genital organs genital organ n. Any of the organs of reproduction or generation, including, in the female, the vulva, clitoris, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina, and in the male, the penis, scrotum, testes, epididymides, deferent ducts, seminal vesicles, , bladder, kidney (statistically significant), thyroid, other endocrine organs, ill-defined and unspecified neoplasms, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Hodgkin Hodg·kin , Sir Alan Lloyd 1914-1998. British physiologist. He shared a 1963 Nobel Prize for research on the action of nerve impulses. Hodgkin, Dorothy Mary Crowfoot 1910-1994. lymphoma lymphoma, a cancer of the tissue of the lymphatic system. There are two categories of lymphomas. One type is termed Hodgkin's disease, the other, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (see lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's). See also neoplasm. , and multiple myeloma. More than 7,500 workers had been involved in the production of chlorophenoxy herbicides excluding 2,4,5-T, and thus were not likely to have been exposed to TCDD. Increased mortality in this group was observed for the following sites: colon, peritoneum and unspecified digestive organs, nose and nasal nasal /na·sal/ (na´zil) pertaining to the nose. na·sal adj. Of, in, or relating to the nose. nasal pertaining to the nose. sinuses Sinuses The nasal sinuses, air-filled cavities surrounding the eyes and nose, like the nose itself are lined with mucus-producing membranes. They provide cleansing to the nose, resonance to the voice, and structure to the face. , larynx, respiratory organs excluding lung, bone, connective and soft tissue, cervix uteri, endometrium and uterus, prostate, testis, other male genital organs, thyroid, other endocrine organs (statistically significant), multiple myeloma, and leukemia. Although exposures in the IARC study (6) were better defined, the current ecologic study with [is greater than] 50 times more subjects resulted in a higher number of statistically significant associations. Because of its high occurrence, prostate cancer mortality in the current study is further discussed in relation to other studies. Farming has been associated with an increased risk of this cancer (12,24,30, 31,33,38-42). Parker et al. (40) found a positive trend for risk of prostate cancer with years of farming in an Iowa farming cohort study. Other epidemiologic studies epidemiologic study A study that compares 2 groups of people who are alike except for one factor, such as exposure to a chemical or the presence of a health effect; the investigators try to determine if any factor is associated with the health effect have provided evidence that prostate cancer may be associated with race, lifestyle, environmental factors, high animal fat intake, and may be hormonal hormonal, adj/n beneficial component in some essential oils that helps to bring hormone secretions to normal levels. hormonal emanating from or pertaining to hormones. in origin (38,43,44). In a study of prostate cancer mortality in Canadian Canadian (kənā`dēən), river, 906 mi (1,458 km) long, rising in NE New Mexico. and flowing E across N Texas and central Oklahoma into the Arkansas River in E Oklahoma. farmers from Manitoba Manitoba (mănĭtō`bə), province (2001 pop. 1,119,583), 250,934 sq mi (650,930 sq km), including 39,215 sq mi (101,580 sq km) of water surface, W central Canada. , Saskatchewan Saskatchewan, province, Canada Saskatchewan (səskăch`əwən, –wän', săs'–), province (2001 pop. 978,933), 251,700 sq mi (651,903 sq km), W Canada. , and Alberta Alberta (ălbûr`tə), province (2001 pop. 2,974,807), 255,285 sq mi (661,188 sq km), including 6,485 sq mi (16,796 sq km) of water surface, W Canada. , Morrison Mor·ris·on , Toni Originally Chloe Anthony Wofford. Born 1931. American writer who won the 1993 Nobel Prize for literature. Her novels, such as Sula (1973) and Beloved (1987), examine the experiences of African Americans. et al. (41) observed a dose-response effect for risk of prostate cancer mortality during 1971-1987 with the number of acres sprayed with herbicides (mostly chlorophenoxy herbicides) in 1970. In a meta-analysis meta-analysis /meta-anal·y·sis/ (met?ah-ah-nal´i-sis) a systematic method that takes data from a number of independent studies and integrates them using statistical analysis. of studies on prostate cancer and farming, Keller-Byrne et al. (42) concluded that hormonally active agricultural chemicals are most likely responsible for the association between prostate cancer and farming. Both 2,4-D and MCPA, the exposure of interest in the current study, and the potential contaminant, dioxins, are endocrine disruptors Endocrine disruptors are exogenous substances that act like hormones in the endocrine system and disrupt the physiologic function of endogenous hormones. Studies have linked endocrine disruptors to adverse biological effects in animals, giving rise to concerns that low-level (1,42). In addition, adjuvants used in the application of 2,4-D to spring wheat also have endocrine-disrupting characteristics (45). In the IARC occupational cohort, there was a slight, non-statistically significant increase in prostate cancer mortality (6). The combined results from these previous investigations, in addition to those in the current ecologic study, suggest a link between prostate cancer and exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides or their contaminants. Both non-Hodgkin lymphoma and soft-tissue sarcoma have been associated with exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides (2,5,9,46-49). The use of 2,4-D for lawn care has been associated with malignant lymphoma malignant lymphoma n. See lymphoma. in pet dogs, which is the equivalent of canine canine or canid Any domestic or wild dog or doglike mammal (e.g., wolf, jackal, fox) in the family Canidae, found throughout the world except in Antarctica and on most ocean islands. non-Hodgkin lymphoma (50). No increase in mortality from non-Hodgkin lymphoma was observed in the current study. Connective and soft-tissue sarcoma in the current study was nonsignificantly increased in women in counties with [is greater than or equal to] 23,000 acres of wheat (Table 4). Several cancers, especially prostate cancer, have been on the rise for several decades in the general population, mostly in the United States and Western Europe Western Europe The countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). (43,44,51,52). 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Woods JS, Polissar L, Severson RK, Hauser LS, Kulander BG. Soft tissue sarcoma soft tissue sarcoma Oncology A sarcoma that arises in muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissues. See Sarcoma. Soft tissue sarcoma staging I A and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in relation to phenoxyherbicide and chlorinated chlorinated /chlo·ri·nat·ed/ (klor´i-nat?ed) treated or charged with chlorine. chlorinated charged with chlorine. chlorinated acids some, e.g. phenol phenol (fē`nōl), C6H5OH, a colorless, crystalline solid that melts at about 41°C;, boils at 182°C;, and is soluble in ethanol and ether and somewhat soluble in water. exposure in western Washington
Western Washington is a region of the United States defined as that part of Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. . J Natl Cancer Inst 78:899-910 (1987). (49.) Vineis P, Faggiano F, Tedeschi M, Ciccone G. Incidence rates of lymphomas and soft-tissue sarcomas Sarcomas Definition A sarcoma is a bone tumor that contains cancer (malignant) cells. A benign bone tumor is an abnormal growth of noncancerous cells. Description A primary bone tumor originates in or near a bone. and environmental measurements of phenoxy herbicides. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:362-363 (1991). (50.) Hayes HM, Tarone RE, Cantor KP, Jessen CR, McCurnin DM, Richardson RC. Case-control study of canine malignant lymphoma: positive association with dog owner's use of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicides. J Natl Cancer Inst 83:1226-1231 (1991). (51.) Mettlin C. Clinical oncology oncology /on·col·o·gy/ (ong-kol´ah-je) the sum of knowledge regarding tumors; the study of tumors. on·col·o·gy n. update: prostate cancer. Recent developments in the epidemiology of prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer 33:340-347 (1997). (52.) Polednak AP. Trends in cancer incidence in Connecticut Connecticut, state, United States Connecticut (kənĕt`ĭkət), southernmost of the New England states of the NE United States. It is bordered by Massachusetts (N), Rhode Island (E), Long Island Sound (S), and New York (W). . Conn Mad 61:211-218 (1997). Dina M. Schreinemachers National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park Research Triangle Park, research, business, medical, and educational complex situated in central North Carolina. It has an area of 6,900 acres (2,795 hectares) and is 8 × 2 mi (13 × 3 km) in size. Named for the triangle formed by Duke Univ. , North Carolina North Carolina, state in the SE United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), South Carolina and Georgia (S), Tennessee (W), and Virginia (N). Facts and Figures Area, 52,586 sq mi (136,198 sq km). Pop. , USA Address correspondence to D.M. Schreinemachers, Epidemiology and Biomarkers Branch, Human Studies Division, NHEERL NHEERL National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (US EPA) , U.S. EPA, MD 58A, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711 USA. Telephone: (919) 966-5875. Fax: (919) 966-7584. E-mail: schreinemachers.dina@epa.gov I thank L.S. Birnbaum, J.P. Creason, and J.M. Blondell for their thoughtful review of the manuscript manuscript, a handwritten work as distinguished from printing. The oldest manuscripts, those found in Egyptian tombs, were written on papyrus; the earliest dates from c.3500 B.C. . I also thank the two anonymous EHP EHP abbr. 1. effective horsepower 2. electric horsepower reviewers for their valuable comments. The research described in this article has been reviewed in accordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[] As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and approved for publication. Approval does not signify sig·ni·fy v. sig·ni·fied, sig·ni·fy·ing, sig·ni·fies v.tr. 1. To denote; mean. 2. To make known, as with a sign or word: signify one's intent. that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the agency. Received 24 February 2000; accepted 3 May 2000. |
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