Can the Book of Proverbs be a player in "biblical theology"?

Abstract

Proverbs does not have a role in the game as currently played. The many theological construals of the past century, although helpful, founder on the concept of thematic unity. This paper suggests a separate track: exegesis of individual passages, which may (or may not) have intertextual associations.

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The role of Proverbs in any theology would seem to be minimal. It has not been conspicuous in Jewish or Christian theology. One reason is the ambiguity of the elusive concept of "biblical theology." Does it have any validity outside of being some scholar's synthesis of biblical data relevant to theology? I have maintained that there is no biblical theology which is of itself independent, free from an implicit theological interpretation on the part of the interpreter. Ultimately the current understanding of biblical theology is misleading (Murphy 2000). The Bible has no literary unity that can be legitimately synthesized into a theology. What passes for biblical theology is really a construal by certain capable and even famous scholars. These construals do not speak with one voice; each theologian has a particular vantage point. Thus W. Eichrodt (1959/1961) selected covenant as the pivot for his construal; G. von Rad (1957/1962) took up the history of traditions; W. Schmidt (1968/1983), the first commandment; H. D. Preuss (1991-1992/ 1995-1996), election and obligation; R. Knierim (1995), righteousness, and so forth. Even if these studies are excellent syntheses, they remain partial. Their fatal drawback is that they synthesize a body of literature which does not have the unity that their syntheses presuppose. Hence a synthesis is imposed from without. The problem increases when the New Testament data are rightfully included (B. Childs 1993).

Such studies are praiseworthy, for they provide readers with new insights to the varied biblical material. But a necessary and even inevitable tilt is given so that the reader comes away with much of the interpreter's theology. There is no intention here to disdain such studies. I want to explore another way of achieving what "biblical theology" has aimed at all along, without getting bogged down in unity, themes, and key concepts. The pluriformity of biblical data seems to call for a modest but correct exegesis of biblical texts that recognizes whatever unity or disunity there may be (whether of a verse or pericope or book). While striving for a valid literal meaning, this approach tolerates more than one meaning. A primary rule is the understanding of the text, as suggested by the style of the work. Thus, in the case of Proverbs, are we dealing with a saying, an exhortation (e.g., the instruction of parent or sage), a speech (distinctive of personified Wisdom)? To this one may reply that the approach is still a construal. True, a certain construal marks any theological interpretation, but perhaps that can be at least reduced and limited. The Book of Proverbs, with its varied styles and content, offers itself to such an experiment. A sharp exegesis will reveal the particularities, but the open-endedness of wisdom transcends these limits. In a sense, a biblical theology is better achieved by recognition of how the literature is to be read, than by synthesizing theological truths.

The choice of the Book of Proverbs, an unlikely candidate, is suggested for several reasons. First, although wisdom literature in general has long been the victim of benign neglect, it did catch the attention of scholars who wrote "biblical theologies." Thus the master of salvation history, G. von Rad published his WEISHEIT, and there followed the capable studies of M. Gilbert (1979), H. D. Preuss (1987), R. Clifford (1995) and M. Fox (1997). A study of the "roots" of wisdom came at the end of a life of scholarly research that C. Westermann (1990/1995) had concentrated on torah and prophets. Second, there has been a remarkable, if perhaps fortuitous, coincidence of commentaries in English on Proverbs within a two-year span: R. Van Leeuwen (1994/1998), R. E. Murphy (1998), R. Clifford (1999), M. V. Fox (2000), and L. Perdue (2000). These works also testify to the large amount of pertinent articles and studies by C. Fontaine (1982), C. Newsom (1989), and many others that have appeared in recent years. The surge of interest in wisdom literature in general throughout the scholarly world is obvious from even a casual perusal of OLD TESTAMENT ABSTRACTS. Studies of Job, and especially Qoheleth in the last decade, have never flagged, and they usually receive much more attention than the relatively modest Book of Proverbs. Third, Proverbs presents a special challenge to anyone who raises questions about theology. It is often dismissed as being "secular," and it may be inferred, not really theological. The disparate character of the exhortations of chapters 1-9 displays a striking difference from the staccato style and the so-called secular content of the sayings in chapters 10-29. Then there is the striking personification of Wisdom as Woman, the most extensive personification in the entire Bible.

In view of what has been said above about the role of construal in the composition of biblical theology, am I proposing just another construal? I am not proposing a synthesis. Instead I am singling out, on the basis of exegetical exploration of certain passages, important insights of theological interest--no more than that. This procedure is necessarily selective. The advantage is the import and fruitfulness of what is selected. This is quite different from the concentration on Proverbs 8:22 during the early theological controversy of Arianism. It was selected because in the Greek translation Wisdom (interpreted as referring to Christ) was the object of the word create, and this favored the argument advanced by the Arians. Whatever be the exegetical merits of this particular case, it exemplifies a theological interpretation of the text, even if erroneous because of a preconceived theological understanding.

Proverbs as Teaching

The theological thrust of the Book of Proverbs comes from its obvious intent to shape the character of a human being, to provide moral formation of a worshiper of the Lord. This goal can be seen in characteristic terminology, perhaps most prominently in "fear of the Lord/God," or discipline, or understanding, or wisdom itself. The tempo can be described as almost Deuteronomic; there is a verve and intensity reminiscent of the preaching of that book. If the prophets threaten, the sages cajole, entice, sometimes with a kind of subliminal invitation. Their rhetoric is one of persuasion, to move the "simple," or naive, to view human (and divine) relationship in a realistic manner. The decalogue forbade adultery: thou shalt not!--Proverbs describes sexual seduction. Before introducing the chapters that follow, Proverbs 1-9 administers a not-so-subtle brow-beating. But the tone of chapters 10-29 is almost "take it or leave it": learn from experience. The experience of the sages is communicated in clever sayings. Style and prudence are as important as content: the right word at the right time (cf. Prov 15:23; 25:11). Many sayings may appear banal to modern taste, but that can be attributed to a passive acceptance by a reader, a failure to weigh them aggressively (perhaps also the failure of an inert English translation!). Although it has been said that a proverb in a collection is dead, presumably because the original proverb performance cannot be captured, this is not necessarily so. One can use imagination and be open to multiple applications of a saying. This is not difficult for a reader who is sensitive to the imagery and the succinctness employed in proverb-making. Above all, the sayings express the ambiguities and the ironies of life.

Proverbs may give the impression of theory rather than praxis, because it transmits an accumulated wisdom of action. Even in its expression it aims at excellence by means of word-play, onomatopoeia, and so forth. Words and speech are important in this book (Murphy 1998: 258-64): how a thing is said (McCreesh) and what is said, when to speak and when not to speak. From this perspective, wisdom forms a body of teaching that is communicable, and is presented as the voice of experience from the past and handed down in the hope of forming future generations. Proverbs 4:3-10 provides a touching example of such transmission, how a father hands on to his son the teaching and encouragement that he himself received from his father and mother. When Qoheleth writes "the more wisdom, the more trouble" (Eccl 1:18), his words point not merely to the discipline required, but also to the result: the insight or lesson that is reached is not an absolute. Rather, it is an energizer; wisdom is both the result and the process (the art of living) that leads to the result; and the result will serve to prod the thoughtful person to another level of effort (Eccl 12:11). Hence theory, if it can be called such, is aimed at praxis. It has been claimed that the kerygma of wisdom is "life" (Murphy 1966) in the sense that it prepares one for a more exuberant and intelligent living--teaches one how to cope with the vicissitudes of life. Thus, while the intellectual component of the art of living is an important part of the total package, the direction of the book is praxis.

Another way of attaining wisdom's understanding of reality is to be aware of the limitations inherent in a saying, or proverb. No matter how much truth they contain, they capture only a relatively narrow slice of life. Hence there will be a remarkable balancing of contrary sayings. Most notorious is the "contradiction" between 26:4 and 26:5: do not answer a fool according to his folly/answer a fool according to his folly. Both proverbs make sense in proper context. We are aware of this phenomenon in our own culture. On one hand, "too many cooks spoil the broth." On the other hand, "many hands make short work." The only certain context for the Book of Proverbs is the collection itself. Thus Proverbs 26:1-10 puts together a string of sayings about the fool, followed by proverbs about the sluggard (vv 13-16). The context is not interpretive; each saying retains its autonomy. Precisely such independence ensures meaning while it creates a certain conflict in judgment according to circumstances. The invitation to make sound judgment is the voice of wisdom, which will not gloss over conflict and ambiguities.

The uncertainties that Proverbs recognizes are the diverse circumstances of life, the contingencies that call for a change of course. Yet there are certain stable values, such as diligence opposed to laziness, honesty opposed to deceit, righteousness opposed to wickedness. The "reward" for all this is the good life. Although Job's "friends" adhered to such a view, retribution is not to be understood in a mechanical way--as though a good act necessarily led to a good result, or an evil deed, to an evil consequence. Such "poetic justice" was desirable, but reality did not square with the mystery of divine justice. Experience showed that the poor were oppressed, even though they deserved better. Hence the "better" sayings that defy an easy optimism, and extol righteousness even in the teeth of adversity: "Better the poor, walking in integrity ..." (Prov 28:6; cf. 19:1; 15:16).

Proverbs as Praxis

It is already apparent that there is only a thin line between theory and praxis in analyzing the sayings. They are not a second-order discussion of what constitutes ethical conduct. They simply hammer away at several insights into human nature and its proclivities. If you know wisdom, you will do it, because she calls for your whole being (Prov 7:4-7). The pursuit of wisdom is underscored by the frequent mention of specific body parts: eyes, mouth, lips, ears, heart, hand, and feet. All the organs of the body are to be united in the pursuit of wisdom; nothing is left to chance.

An attractive construal of the entire book, from beginning to end, has been put forth by R. Clifford (1998: 2, 18, 28, 111). He understands the instructions of chapters 1-9 as advice for a youth who leaves home to find a wife and establish a household. The advice is raised to a "metaphorical level," and thus made available to everyone, by the speeches of personified Wisdom. She is to be found above all else, for she is life (Prov 8:35). This gives depth and breadth to the sayings in the following chapters. "Whoever finds a wife finds good" (Prov 18:22; cf. 19:14). This construal is both original and attractive; it suggests a wide lens for the interpretation of the Book of Proverbs as a whole. Among scholars there is a broad (if not universal) acknowledgment that chapters 1-9 function as a deliberate introduction, thus inviting the reader to exercise imagination in interpreting the sayings that follow. The proposed setting may not convince everyone, but it enlarges one's vision.

Another construal, not simply for the Book of Proverbs, but for the entire wisdom enterprise, has been put forth by W. P. Brown (1996). Envisaging the idea of character as the center of wisdom literature, he traces it through the three wisdom books of the Tanak, a "journey" (21) describing ethical character in Proverbs and its recasting (without losing itself) in Job and in Qoheleth. Readers who undertake this journey are set on a way, a way of life, along which wisdom accompanies them. N. Habel (1972) had already pointed to "way" as a key if not dominant metaphor in chapters 1-9. As Brown puts it, "This temporal aspect [he means from Proverbs to Qoheleth] of character formation is indicated in the frequently repeated motif the `way of wisdom'" (151). This is without doubt a key symbol in the Bible, with a remarkable crossover to the Law in Psalm 1 and elsewhere (e.g., Ps 119), not to mention the prominence of the term in Christian literature.

These construals, inventive and creative, are helpful because they call attention to the interpretive possibilities of the book as a whole. They make sense of the design of the Book of Proverbs, all the while assuming the validity and value of the distinct sayings in chapters 10-29. We shall now concentrate on these later chapters. It is possible to get lost, as it were, in the thicket that each chapter presents, an average of thirty proverbs. But the adage about not seeing the forest for the trees is not pertinent here. What is called for is careful, even meticulous, reading of each saying in a chapter, with an eye to its theological/anthropological relevance. General observations about the collections in these chapters are available in the Proverbs commentaries mentioned above. It is obvious that the important and huge topic of the personification of Wisdom as a woman needs a volume, and several books have been given over to that issue; see, e.g., the summary in Fox (2000: 293-306; 331-59).

To keep within a reasonable space for this article, I will choose a proverb that illustrates the subtlety and also the fruitfulness of a theological interpretation:

   The treasures of wickedness do not profit but justice saves from death
   [Prov 10:2].

How are the terms of the text to be understood? The phrase "treasures of wickedness" literally means wealth acquired in ways that are wrong or dishonest. Justice or righteousness is continually opposed to wickedness in the Bible, and especially in Proverbs 10-15. It can be broadly described as a relational term, indicating the proper conduct of one person towards another, and in a religious sense, especially toward God (cf. Abram in Gen 15:6). Death can be taken normally as the end of life, the end of one's days. But how is one "saved" (literally, "delivered") from death? It does not necessarily mean that one escapes death; the Old Testament perception of reality did not allow that, except perhaps for characters like Henoch (Gen 5:23-34) and Elijah (2 Kgs 2:11). Their deaths are not recorded, but they are described as being "taken" from this world in marvelous fashion. "Death" has a certain coloring; it can refer to a premature death, or to art an ugly, unhappy death (especially for those who put their trust in riches and not in God; Ps 49:7, 14). Immediately the reader is faced with more than one level of meaning. Death for the Israelites was nearly always an unhappy event because the non-life of Sheol awaited them. Sheol was even considered to be dynamic, a power that (as Death itself) pursued everyone (see the "hand of Sheol" in Ps 89:49). But it carried an extra nuance for the wicked. For them death will somehow be unhappy; whether premature or otherwise, is not always explicit. But implicit is the thought that the "treasures" of life will be of no avail--you can't take it with you--a point that is made more vigorously elsewhere, especially in Psalm 49:7-11, 17-20. What about the "death" of the just? They cannot escape death, but something of the "sting of death" (Hos 13:14) can be lessened. Justice (=righteousness) will "deliver" from an unhappy and unpleasant death. Thus the just person is expected to live to a ripe old age, a sign of blessing from the Lord in whom the righteous trust. The progeny of the just is their form of "immortality." Their memory is recalled in blessing, while the name of the wicked rots (Prov 10:7).

So one level of meaning--appropriate and in line with Israelite thought. But the terms are open-ended, and reinterpretation is possible. At a later date the "justice" that delivers from death came to be interpreted specifically as almsgiving. According to Tobit 4:10, "almsgiving delivers from death." Later on another interpretation is given, this time in the Greek dikaiosune, which is the translation of the Hebrew "justice," or "righteousness." In the Book of Wisdom, death, in both a physical and a spiritual sense, is taken up in the first chapter, where the writer affirms that "justice [dikaiosune] is undying (Wis 1:15). Intimations of immortality may appear in certain psalms (49:8, 16; 73:23-26), and more obviously in the resurrection of Daniel 12:2-3 and 2 Maccabees 7:9, 11, 14). But in the Book of Wisdom there is a clear affirmation of a unique immortality. The just are "in the hand of God, and no torment shall touch them" (Wis 3:1). The reward of the just person, who had been persecuted in this life by the wicked (Wis 2:10-20), surprises them at the judgment, as they exclaim: "See how he is accounted among the sons of God, how his lot is with the holy ones!" (Wis 5:5). Immortality means belonging to the family of God, the heavenly court. Although the writer knew of the Greek notion of soul as opposed to body, he did not reason from such an understanding to conclude to immortality. Instead he understood immortality as rooted in a persevering relationship with God, a gift of life as a member of the divine family, the "sons of God."

Proverbs 11:4 echoes the familiar words of 10:2:

   Wealth is of no profit on the day of wrath, but justice delivers from death

The meaning is made more specific. Riches are-again the target, but not because they have been wrongfully gained; they are simply not profitable "on the day of wrath." This day is not further specified; it could designate any kind of adversity, from simple loss of wealth to the act of dying. The immediate cause is some human disaster; so one cannot necessarily conclude that the wrath is divine. Riches, however, which are normally part of the prosperity of the just as elsewhere in the Bible, are clearly downplayed, and v 4b retains its meaning as in 10:2.

Echoes of this outlook appear in other sayings, especially the "better" sayings, finely analyzed in E. Huwiler (1988: 86-89, 141-48). Thus Proverbs 15:16 reads:

   Better a little with fear of the Lord, than great treasure and with it
   trouble.

The "trouble" mentioned here is the problems that riches can bring to a person (e.g., those pointed out by Qoheleth in Ecclesiastes 5:9-16). This form of proverb is a preferred way of expressing a paradox. Such sayings contradict the optimistic view that prosperity and virtue (=wisdom) should belong together. The general notion is repeated in a slightly different form in Proverbs 16:8, 16, 19; 17:1; 28:6.

Thus one ends up with a striking similarity between the prohibition of idolatry and the proverbial sayings about wealth. The Torah and the Prophets excoriate emphatically and explicitly the worship of other gods. Proverbs attacks what human beings are all too prone to erect as divinities: riches. These are as it were ramifications of one proverb, 10:2, and they exemplify the true riches that a close and comparative reading of the sayings can yield. They are not well summed up in any theme or in "biblical theology." They are best evaluated by the exegesis of individual passages, an exegesis that pays careful attention to the saying and its reverberations in the Bible.

Appendix

I add here a list of sayings that are relevant to the title of this article. They are chosen for various reasons: theological potential, human insight, literary style. In any case, the list is intended to be representative, not exhaustive, and even to be a suggestion that all readers make their own lists. In each instance a kind of catch word is included to recall to memory the saying; in a few cases, the correct translation is a factor.

1:7                Fear of the Lord
2:6                gift of wisdom
3:19               wisdom in creation
3:30-31            wisdom with God and humans
10:2               deliverance from death
10:22              effort to substitute for Lord's blessing
11:2               pride/humility
11:24              a paradox (cf. 13:7)
12:14              deed/consequence (cf. 13:2; 18:20)
12:28              to (no?) death
13:11              haste
14:20              money makes "friends"
14:31              poor/Maker (cf. 17:5; 22:2)
15:11              Sheol, heart
15:16-17           "better"
15:23              timely word (perhaps 25:11)
15:5, 10, 32, 33   reproof

16:1-9

16:25              the right? way
16:33              lots
17:3               cf. 27:21
17:27-28           ambiguity of silence
18:13              listen!
18:17              both sides
18:22              "find" wife;  cf. 19:14
18:23              money makes a difference (19:4, 6-7)
19:21              Cf. 16:9
20:14              a bargain
20:24              determinism
20:27              ??
21:2               right, but?
21:30              wisdom and YHWH
22:17-23:31        and Amenemope's "thirty"
24:17-18           attitude to enemy; cf. 20:22; 24:28-29
25:14              clouds but no rain
25:15              tongue/bone
26:4-5             famous "contradiction"
26:12              "wise in one's own eyes"
26:14              door/sluggard
26:27              digging a pit
27:2               praise
27:5               honesty in love
27:7               bitter/sweet
29:9               wise and fool contending
29:20              haste in speech
30:18-19           a numerical proverb on marvel

Works Cited

Brown, William P. 1996. CHARACTER IN CRISIS: A FRESH APPROACH TO THE WISDOM LITERATURE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

Childs, Brevard. 1993. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.

Clifford, Richard J. 1999. PROVERBS: A COMMENTARY. OTL; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

1995. The Book of Proverbs and Our Search for Wisdom. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University.

Eichrodt, Walter. 1961. THEOLOGY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster.

Fontaine, Carole R. 1982. TRADITIONAL SAYINGS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. Sheffield, UK: Almond.

Fox, Michael V. 2000. PROVERBS 1-9. AB 18A; New York, NY: Doubleday.

1996. What the Book of Proverbs is About. Pp. 153-67 in CONGRESS VOLUME CAMBRIDGE (1995). VTSup 66. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Gilbert, Maurice (ed.). 1979. LA SAGESSE DE L'ANCIEN TESTAMENT. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University.

Habel, Norman C. 1972. The Symbolism of Wisdom in Proverbs 1-9. INTERPRETATION 26:131-57.

Huwiler, Elizabeth F. 1988. CONTROL OF REALITY IN ISRAELITE WISDOM. Durham, NC: Duke University dissertation.

Knierim, Rolf. 1995. THE TASK OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.

McCreesh, Thomas. 1992. BIBLICAL SOUND AND SENSE: POETIC SOUND PATTERNS IN PROVERBS 1-9. JSOTSup 128. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic.

Murphy, Roland E. 2000. Questions concerning Biblical Theology. BIBLICAL THEOLOGY BULLETIN 30:81-89.

1998. PROVERBS. WBC 22; Nashville, TN: Nelson.

1996. The Kerygma of the Book of Proverbs. INTERPRETATION 20:3-14.

Newsom, Carol A. 1989. Woman and the Discourse of Patriarchal Wisdom: A Study of Proverbs 1-9. Pp. 142-60 in GENDER AND DIFFERENCE, edited by P. L. Day. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.

Perdue, Leo G. 2000. PROVERBS. Interpretation; Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

Preuss, Horst D. 1996. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

1987. EINFUHRUNG IN DIE ALTTESTAMENTLICHE WEISHEITS-LITERATUR. Stuttgart, Germany: Kohlhammer.

Van Leeuwen, R. 1997. The Book of Proverbs. THE NEW INTERPRETER'S BIBLE. Nashville, TN: Abingdon. Vol. V, 19-264.

Von Rad, Gerhard. 1962. OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Westerman, C. 1995. ROOTS OF WISDOM. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox.

Roland E. Murphy, S.T.D. (Catholic University of America), a member of the Carmelite Order, is George Washington Ivey Emeritus Professor of Biblical Studies at Duke University, now residing at Whitefriars Hall, Washington, D.C. 20017. His most recent book is THE GIFT OF THE PSALMS (Hendrickson, 2000).