Can research be used by the teacher?What excites a committed teacher the most? Hopefully student achievement would be at or near the top of the list. In physical education our primary focus as teachers should be to provide opportunities for our students to develop motor and sport skills, become physically fit, and develop knowledge needed to fully participate in leisure pursuits, thus enabling them to engage in an active lifestyle. Few teachers have the ideal setting with a good student-teacher ratio Student-Teacher ratio refers to the number of teachers in a school/university with respect to the number of students who attend the school/university. For example, a student teacher ratio of 10:1 means that there are 10 students for every teacher available. , plenty of equipment, adequate space, and all the necessary time to teach the content, often leading to frustration. Teachers wonder how they can get students with disabilities involved in appropriate physical education tasks for longer periods of time when students do not understand directions, have an attention span of 10 seconds, are unable to make quick changes of directions, or follow verbal directions independently. Palaestra published a review of effective teaching research in the Spring Issue (9:3), 1993. This article is a follow-up to that one and will provide some practical strategies to implement some of the research available. Perhaps it will give committed teachers a few ideas on how to provide those essential learning opportunities. Peer Tutors A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored. In an undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct from the graduate students who may be teaching the writing classes. Peer tutors have been reported in the research as effective helpers in both regular and adapted physical education Adapted physical education is a sub-discipline of physical education. It is an individualized program created for students who require a specially designed program for more than 30 days. classes. Nuts and bolts nuts and bolts pl.n. Slang The basic working components or practical aspects: "[proposing] of implementing a peer tutor program are not always readily available. Teachers wishing to add extra hands and additional sets of eyes should follow a few key steps to keep headaches to a minimum Initially, a teacher should decide philosophically what the purpose of the peer tutor program will be. Support must be gained from the building administrator and other teachers. If the physical educator does not have a clear focus, it will be difficult to sell the program to others. After permission to proceed has been received, teachers must determine which students with disabilities will be included in the program. The total number of peer tutors is dependent upon the students with disabilities who will be involved. Recruitment can be done through flyers, announcements, and personal contacts. It would be ideal if recruits did not miss their own physical education classes to serve as peer tutors. However, if the needed numbers are not forthcoming, physical education teachers may recruit students who are likely candidates from physical education classes and limit their involvement. A screening process should follow to be sure the volunteers are dependable. Parents should receive information about the program and sign a permission form to allow their child to participate as a tutor TUTOR - A Scripting language on PLATO systems from CDC. ["The TUTOR Language", Bruce Sherwood, Control Data, 1977]. . They should also have the opportunity to ask questions. Consider an open forum night or a set time for telephone calls. Assignment of peer tutors must consider individual needs and abilities of both tutors and students with disabilities. It is important to have the peer tutor work on a regular schedule with one student with disabilities, whether it be every Monday or every day for two weeks. If tutors only come one day a week, routines can be developed for that day. Often benefits realized by peer tutors far outweigh out·weigh tr.v. out·weighed, out·weigh·ing, out·weighs 1. To weigh more than. 2. To be more significant than; exceed in value or importance: The benefits outweigh the risks. the time away from a regularly scheduled class. The research is not clear on the necessity of training for peer tutors (Webster Webster, town (1990 pop. 16,196), Worcester co., S Mass., near the Conn. line; settled c.1713, set off from Dudley and Oxford and inc. 1832. The chief manufactures are footwear, fabrics, and textiles. , 1993). Some research has indicated that it is not necessary to train tutors if the physical education teacher remains responsible for instructional decisions in the class and the tutors just assist students with a disability with tasks selected by the teacher. However, it is best to have an orientation, at minimum, for potential peer tutors. They need to know what to expect. Topics to address include class routines, typical behaviors of the student with disabilities, typical responses to instruction, and communication abilities of the student with disabilities. Answering or attempting to answer questions such as these will provide a baseline for tutors to begin their work. It should be impressed im·press 1 tr.v. im·pressed, im·press·ing, im·press·es 1. To affect strongly, often favorably: upon tutors that information about special education students is confidential and should not be discussed outside of class. Questions concerning their students should be saved for a private conversation with the physical education teacher when the student is not present. A training or orientation session should familiarize potential tutors not only with the students with whom they will be working, but with the curriculum as well. If tutors have an idea about tasks to be practiced, they will be better able to help their students. However, some teachers have reported that peer tutors were successful assisting with units with no prior knowledge such as archery archery, sport of shooting with bow and arrow, an important military and hunting skill before the introduction of gunpowder. England's Charles II fostered archery as sport, establishing in 1673 the world's oldest continuous archery tournament, the Ancient Scorton . It is helpful if tutors have some familiarity with appropriate use of feedback, instructional cues, and praise. Finally, it would be a good idea to have the tutors and the students with disabilities meet in an ice breaker-orientation program if they have not met during the normal school day. The primary job of the peer tutor is to direct and/or assist the student with a disability to perform the task assigned by the physical education teacher. Assistance peer tutors provide their students with disabilities will vary with the student and the class activity. Peer tutors may only need to offer encouragement to keep students with disabilities on task. They may only need to model the skills being taught by the teacher. Perhaps extra verbal cues are needed to clarify the instruction of the teacher. At other times, tutors may have to physically assist their students through movements Peer tutors should not be expected to deal with students with disabilities on those bad hair days when the student is having a hard time controlling behavior. On those days, the teacher should be prepared to take over or provide maximum support to the peer tutor. Task sheets are another instructional strategy that might be used when peer tutors are available to track students' performance on a particular day. A brief description, a diagram or drawing depicting correct form, or number of trials completed can help peer tutors help students with disabilities through a sequence of tasks. Teachers can also provide a listing of common errors along with appropriate corrections allowing tutors to make some decisions on the quality of their students' performances. Information provided by peer tutors on a task sheet could help teachers document the progress of their students with disabilities. Availability of peer tutors affords teachers the opportunity to truly individualize in·di·vid·u·al·ize tr.v. in·di·vid·u·al·ized, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·ing, in·di·vid·u·al·iz·es 1. To give individuality to. 2. To consider or treat individually; particularize. 3. lessons to meet specific needs of their students. Peer tutors are one way to help minimize that frustration when the teacher-student ratio works against any real achievement of the goals and objectives on each student's IEP IEP In currencies, this is the abbreviation for the Irish Punt. Notes: The currency market, also known as the Foreign Exchange market, is the largest financial market in the world, with a daily average volume of over US $1 trillion. . Learning Environment Verbal Behavior Effective teacher research recommends a positive classroom climate (Siedentop, 1983). This is not to say that only praise must be given. Nor should teachers talk constantly during a lesson. It does mean that teachers should be aware of their interaction patterns with students. Teachers can easily identify their verbal statements in class and to specific students (if first names are used) by audiotaping a class. When listening to the audiotape au·di·o·tape n. 1. A relatively narrow magnetic tape used to record sound for subsequent playback. 2. A tape recording of sound. tr.v. , the teacher should note the amount of time spent in instruction, as well as the type of feedback given to students. Teachers should provide sufficient information to students when explaining a task but keep motor learning principles in mind. Beginners are able to process only one or two pieces of information at a time. Many students with disabilities will be beginners for most of the skills taught. They will only be able to handle one or two cues at a time. Thus, students with processing problems or short attention spans will be lost and perhaps get off task if a teacher uses too lengthy a time period for each instructional segment. Teachers also need to be aware of the type of feedback they are giving to all students. Research has indicated (Martinek & Karper, 1981) that students with disabilities often receive general or social feedback rather than skill related feedback. Teachers need to provide information to the student with a disability on how that person is executing a skill, not only social praise. Martinek and Karper (1982) also reported that teachers had lower expectations for performance for students with disabilities. It is important to have high, yet reasonable, expectations for all students. Teachers must provide specific feedback congruent con·gru·ent adj. 1. Corresponding; congruous. 2. Mathematics a. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles. b. with the cues given if students with disabilities are to achieve. Focusing Attention Often a problem arises when a teacher tries to get students with disabilities to focus on a particular task. Keep your eye on the ball just does not work with many children who might have attention deficits, learning disabilities, mental retardation mental retardation, below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. , or perceptual per·cep·tu·al adj. Of, based on, or involving perception. problems, to name a few. Classroom research has indicated that color is an attraction for active attention problem children (Zentall & Kruczek, 1988). When color emphasis was placed on the relevant detail, more improved performances resulted than when the color was randomly assigned to the work. In physical education, teachers may have used similar strategies to help students focus, but perhaps we should utilize the strategy more to verify its worth. The attention getting aspect of the color should be considered. A color that is bright and in contrast to the equipment in question would be most useful. Students should be asked what color is more easily seen by them when determining which colors to use. It could be different for different students. If the student is nonverbal non·ver·bal adj. 1. Being other than verbal; not involving words: nonverbal communication. 2. Involving little use of language: a nonverbal intelligence test. , the teacher may ask the parents which color their child appears to respond to the most. If students are having a hard time hitting a ball off a tee with a bat, the ball should be marked at the appropriate place with a colored circle. The same color can be placed on the bat at the place where the ball should contact the bat. The student would be directed to hit the ball so the colors meet. Tennis rackets rackets Game for two or four players with ball and racket on a four-walled court. Rackets is played with a hard ball in a relatively large court (approximately 9 × 18 m), unlike the related games of squash and racquetball. may be highlighted by outlining the sweet spot with a colorful piece of yarn yarn, fibers or filaments formed into a continuous strand for use in weaving textiles or for the manufacture of thread. A staple fiber, such as cotton, linen, or wool, is made into yarn by carding, combing (for fine, long staples only), drawing out into roving, then woven A woven is a cloth formed by weaving. It only stretches in the Bias directions (between the warp and weft directions), unless the threads are elastic. Woven cloth usually frays at the edges, unless measures are taken to counter this, such as the use of pinking shears or hemming. through the strings to denote de·note tr.v. de·not·ed, de·not·ing, de·notes 1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience. 2. the section of the racket that will provide the best opportunity for a good hit. The section on the blade of a hockey stick that should be used to contact a puck or ball could also be highlighted with a color. If one is using field hockey sticks In Field hockey, each player carries a stick and cannot take part in the game without it. The stick is usually between 36" and 38" long and traditionally made of wood but now almost all sticks are 'composite' - made of a number of materials. , the flat side could be marked with a color to serve as a reminder that only the flat side of the stick is available for hitting the ball. Color is only useful on balls, pucks, shuttlecocks, etc. that are stationary Stationary can mean:
Auditory auditory /au·di·to·ry/ (aw´di-tor?e) 1. aural or otic; pertaining to the ear. 2. pertaining to hearing. au·di·to·ry adj. cues may be useful to improve the attention capacities of some students with disabilities. Beep beep - bell balls are available for students with visual impairments Visual Impairment Definition Total blindness is the inability to tell light from dark, or the total inability to see. Visual impairment or low vision is a severe reduction in vision that cannot be corrected with standard glasses or contact lenses and ; however, the continuous beeping Beeping is a cellphone communications tactic where a cash-strapped cellphone caller gets the person he/she is "beeping" to call him/her back. [1] Method may also help focus a student with other disabilities (e.g., severe mental retardation). The continuous sound utilizes a second sense and may help the student attend long enough to execute the skill. Equipment handles can also be marked to help students with disabilities grasp the equipment in the correct location. For example, velcro can be placed on the handle of a hockey stick to direct the students' attention for the safe control of the stick. Students would have a constant reminder for the correct grip. Similar markings might be useful on all rackets and bats. In addition, the teacher could easily see if the students were utilizing the equipment correctly. Practice Conditions Verbal Rehearsal re·hears·al n. The process of repeating information, such as a name or a list of words, in order to remember it. re·hearse  v.
Another means to help students focus on relevant cues during practice is verbal rehearsal. Kowalski and Sherrill (1992) found that students with learning disabilities learned a motor sequence in fewer number of trials if they verbally stated the steps to be taken when executing the sequence. To utilize this strategy, teachers have to identify the steps that are needed to appropriately complete a sequence. Students recite the steps with the teacher prior to completing the sequence. It is thought that stating the movement to be completed while doing the movement helps encode (1) To assign a code to represent data, such as a parts code. Contrast with decode. (2) To convert from one format or signal to another. See codec and D/A converter. (3) The term is sometimes erroneously used for "encrypt. the movement into long-term memory long-term memory n. Abbr. LTM The phase of the memory process considered the permanent storehouse of retained information. long-term memory . If the teacher has too large a class to recite individually with each student who might benefit, an audiotape could be made of the sequence and made available to children with learning disabilities for the practice session. Another possibility for verbal rehearsal would be to have the sequence written down or in pictorial form for the students to read aloud. Once the reading has been completed, the students should complete the skill or sequence. Verbal cues often help children remember a skill. A teacher must consider the ability of students and select cues that are brief and to the point. For example, when working with elementary-aged children who are autistic autistic /au·tis·tic/ (aw-tis´tik) characterized by or pertaining to autism. , a back shoulder roll could be performed down a wedge mat by using the cues, sit on the mat, lie back, knees up, and over. Physical assistance may be needed to help them go over in a segmented roll. Eventually the goal would be for children to complete the roll on their own. To facilitate that, teachers can speed up the cues to help children integrate the components, hopefully blending the steps together for a complete roll. Variability of Practice It is generally considered that students with mental retardation will need a greater number of practice trials to learn a motor task. There is some debate as to how those practice trials should be ordered to facilitate learning. As noted previously (Del Rey Del Rey may refer to:
American athlete. An outstanding collegiate football player, he later played professional football and baseball. , 1989), a varied practice format appeared to be more useful when teaching skills to students with mental retardation. However, Eidson and Stadulis (1991) reported the ability of children with moderate mental retardation to transfer knowledge is dependent upon the type of skill, open or closed, that is to be performed. They did report that the variable practice condition was better than constant practice when the task required minimal adjustments to the environment. The variable practice format was not superior when children with moderate mental retardation were practicing an open skill; the environmental demands were more complex. Teachers need to consider the environmental demands of skills to be taught. Are the conditions constant or changing? Will the skill to be taught be used in the same environment when it is used in a real game? The type of practice opportunities that are established must address these issues. Conventional wisdom has been that children with mental retardation need lots of repetition to learn a skill. Children practicing the open skill in Eidson and Stadulis' study needed more trials to acquire the skill. Perhaps repetition is essential. It does not mean that children have to do all the repetitions all at once. Teachers may plan a variety of activities per class and revisit re·vis·it tr.v. re·vis·it·ed, re·vis·it·ing, re·vis·its To visit again. n. A second or repeated visit. re the skills often rather than spend long periods of time on a single skill. The end result would be a similar number of trials with the difference being trials are spread over a greater number of days and weeks. It could be that the attention span of students with mental retardation has a negative impact on blocked trials and the variety maintains interest longer. Teachers should plan the tasks for each day with short periods of time devoted to several different tasks. Many students with disabilities learn motor skills in a closed environment. The requirements for the skill are the same or nearly so for each trial. However, many sports that are available in communities require skills to be used in a dynamic environment. If students with disabilities are not able to utilize their skills in a real setting, they will not be able to fully enjoy an active lifestyle. Conclusion There are as many unanswered questions about the best way to teach as there are different students with disabilities. Physical education teachers should take every opportunity to experiment and share their experiments with others. They need to try out the researcher's ideas in the gymnasium gymnasium In Germany, a state-maintained secondary school that prepares pupils for higher academic education. This type of nine-year school originated in Strasbourg in 1537. and see if the theories, work. Communication is the means to improve physical education services for students with disabilities. Selected References Del Ray, P., & Stewart, M. (1989). Organizing input for mentally retarded Noun 1. mentally retarded - people collectively who are mentally retarded; "he started a school for the retarded" developmentally challenged, retarded subjects to enhance memory and transfer, Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 6, 247-254. Eidson, T.A., & Stadulis, R.E. (1991). Effects of variability of practice on the transfer and performance of open and closed motor skills. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 8, 342-356. Kowalski, E.M., & Sherrill, C. (1992). Motor sequencing of boys with learning disabilities: Modeling and verbal rehearsal strategies. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 9(3), 261-272 Karper, W.B., & Martinek, T.J. (1982). Differential influence of various instructional factors on self-concepts of handicapped and nonhandicapped children in mainstreamed classes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 831-835. Martinek, T.J., & Karper, W.B. (1981). Teachers' expectations for handicapped and nonhandicapped children in mainstreamed physical education classes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 327-330. Siedentop, D. (1983). Developing teaching skills in physical education (2nd edition). Palo Alto Palo Alto, city, California Palo Alto (păl`ō ăl`tō), city (1990 pop. 55,900), Santa Clara co., W Calif.; inc. 1894. Although primarily residential, Palo Alto has aerospace, electronics, and advanced research industries. , CA: Mayfield. Weber, R.C., & Thorpe, J. (1989). Comparison of task variation and constant task methods for severely disabled in physical education. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 7(4), 338-353. Webster, G.E. (1993). Effective teaching in adapted physical education... A review. Palaestra, 9(3), 25-31. Zentall, S.S., & Kruczek, T. (1988). The attraction of color not of the white race; - commonly meaning, esp. in the United States, of negro blood, pure or mixed. See also: Color for active attention-problem children. Exceptional Children, 54(4), 357-362. Gail Webster is an associate professor in the Department of Health and Physical Education at Kennesaw State College in Marietta, Georgia Marietta is a city located in central Cobb County, Georgia GR6, and is its county seat. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 58,748, making it one of metro Atlanta's largest suburbs. . She serves as the adapted physical education specialist, supervises practica experiences for students in her field, and is co-director of the Special Physical Education Movement Development Institute for 3- to 21-year-olds. Linda Carr CARR Carrier CARR Customer Acceptance Readiness Review CARR Carrollton Railroad CARR Corrective Action Request and Report CARR City Area Rural Rides (Texas) CARR Configuration Audit Readiness Review CARR Customer Acceptance Requirements Review is an Itinerant ITINERANT. Travelling or taking a journey. In England there were formerly judges called Justices itinerant, who were sent with commissions into certain counties to try causes. Adapted Physical Education Teacher in the Cobb County School District The Cobb County School District is the county government agency which operates public schools in Cobb County. The district includes all of Cobb County except for the city of Marietta. , Georgia. |
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