Calming rough wafers: teacher strategies for smoothing the transition to middle school.

In the United States, 88% of young adolescents experience a critical developmental milestone: the transition from elementary to middle school (National Middle School Association [NMSA] & National Association of Elementary School Principals [NAESP], 2002). While all grade transitions can be challenging, the move from elementary to middle school is particularly difficult. Young adolescents encounter more of everything in middle school: more space to navigate, more people with whom to interact, and more choices to make in terms of classes, friendships, and activities. Couple this with the rapid physical, cognitive, and emotional changes associated with early adolescence (Rice & Dolgin, 2005), and the middle school transition becomes a complex life experience requiring careful navigation.

Advocates for young adolescents suggest that having a developmentally appropriate school climate is key to meeting the needs of middle school students and facilitating a positive transition experience (Jackson & Davis, 2000; NMSA, 2003). Developmentally appropriate middle schools are characterized by a relevant and rigorous curriculum, learning related to the lives of students, and acknowledgment of students' individual learning needs (Hester, Gable, & Manning, 2003; Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003). However, in the present educational context, influenced by an unprecedented emphasis on high-stakes testing, schools instead offer heavy doses of drill and practice, fact memorization, test preparation, and teacher-centered instruction designed to "cover" content for standardized tests (Solley, 2007). The resulting contrasts between the needs of young adolescents and their middle school environments may lead to not only poor school transitions (Eccles et al., 1993), but also a host of negative long-term outcomes, such as drug abuse, delinquency, and dropping out of school (Anfara & Schmid, 2007; Davis, Davis, Smith, & Capa, 2003; Galbo, 1989; Murdock, 1999; Murdock & Miller, 2003).

Given the educational landscape, it is both timely and appropriate for educators to revisit the topic of middle school transition and reconsider their role in the transition experiences of young adolescents. When informed by the research literature, middle school teachers are positioned to play a positive role in young adolescents' transition experiences. In building a bridge between research and practice, we recommend four strategies that middle school teachers may use to proactively calm the rough waters of the middle school transition and enhance young adolescents' educational experiences.

Understanding Young Adolescents' Transition Experiences

Student Outcomes. Young adolescents' transition experiences are well-documented in the literature, particularly in terms of their academic achievement, self-perceptions, and motivation. Typically, young adolescents experience declines in the areas of class preparation and grade point averages (Seidman, Allen, Abet, Mitchell, & Feinman, 1994), decreases in achievement (Alspaugh, 1998; Graham, 1997; Osterman, 2000), and falling report card grades (Barber & Olsen, 2004; Wampler, Munsch, & Adams, 2002) after the transition to middle school. Research suggests that young adolescents experience academic declines regardless of race or gender (Seidman et al., 1994), with boys (Chung, Elias, & Schneider, 1998) and African American students (Simmons, Burgerson, Carlton-Ford, & Blyth, 1987) being most profoundly affected.

How young adolescents perceive themselves across the transition to middle school is less consistently reported in the research. For example, some researchers suggest that young adolescents struggle with self-esteem, competence, and self-concept across the transition to middle school, particularly immediately after the transition (Anderman & Midgley, 1997; Mizelle, 1995; Seidman et al., 1994; Wells, 1996; Zanobini & Usai, 2002). Others suggest that young adolescents do not experience any changes in their perceptions of themselves (Chung et al., 1998), or may even experience positive shifts across the transition (Barber & Olsen, 2004; Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006). The key difference in the positive or negative reporting of self-perceptions may be related to the organizational structures (instructional teams or departmentalized structures) used in the middle schools into which they are transitioning (Barber & Olsen, 2004).

Finally, the research literature consistently reports that young adolescents struggle with motivational declines as they move from elementary to middle school (Eccles et al., 1993; Zanobini & Usai, 2002). Why these declines occur is unclear, however, and several factors should be considered: the timing of the school transition with the transition into adolescence (Blyth, Simmons, & Carlton-Ford, 1983), mismatches between the school environment and young adolescents' needs (Eccles et al., 1993), and the shifting nature of the relationships with middle school teachers (Guthrie & Davis, 2003). Recently, researchers have focused on the motivational orientations in middle school classrooms, and they suggest that task-oriented classrooms (learning to finish the task) are linked to motivational and achievement declines in middle school, while mastery-oriented classrooms (learning for the sake of learning) are associated with increases in motivation and academic achievement (Anderman & Midgley, 1997; Urdan & Midgley, 2003).

Instructional Environment. While the roles of teachers and the classroom instructional environments they create across the transition to middle school are less well-documented, research does suggest that both are connected to the academic, self-perception, and motivational declines previously discussed and are generally in stark contrast to young adolescents' developmental needs. For example, we know that young adolescents desire positive, meaningful relationships with teachers, prefer an active, student-centered learning over teacher-directed instruction (NMSA, 2003), and benefit from such instructional strategies as choice, cooperative learning, service learning, challenging assignments, and differentiated techniques (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000). Unfortunately, research indicates that young adolescents report different experiences in middle schools. Young adolescents experience negative declines in student/teacher relationships, describing their teachers as less caring and supportive than their elementary teachers, and their relationships with teachers as more diluted in middle school than in elementary school (Feldlaufer, Midgley, & Eccles, 1988; Oldfather & McLaughlin, 1993). These declines in student-teacher relationships may negatively impact young adolescents' attitudes about content areas (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), their motivational levels, and their academic self-concepts (Davis et al., 2003; Murdock, 1999; Murdock & Miller, 2003). Research also suggests that middle school teachers have a lower efficacy, or confidence in their teaching abilities, than their elementary counterparts, and consequently are more likely to display more negative attitudes and offer students less opportunity for choice, control and autonomy in their classrooms than teachers with a stronger teaching efficacy (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1988). Low teaching confidence also is associated with dramatic negative shifts in young adolescents' motivation and perceptions of ability in content areas (Eccles et al., 1993).

Like student/teacher relationships, young adolescents' perceptions of the classroom instructional environment across the transition are typically negative, in opposition to their developmental needs, and connected to declines in academic achievement, peer relationships, and beliefs about themselves in middle school (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 1998). For example, young adolescents describe their middle school classrooms as having less autonomy, fewer opportunities for input, and fewer cooperative group interactions than found in their elementary classrooms (Feldlaufer et al., 1988; Guthrie & Davis, 2003). In addition, young adolescents report the middle school environment as teacher-centered, with an increased focus on grades, competition, and task orientation (Oldfather & McLaughlin, 1993). Finally, young adolescents describe having fewer actual decision-making opportunities in middle school, particularly in terms of where to sit, homework, classwork, rule construction, and what to do after work was completed (Midgley & Feldlaufer, 1987; Smith, Feldwisch, & Abell, 2006; Weiss & Bearman, 2007).

Connecting Research and Practice: Recommendations for

Middle School Teachers Understanding the literature on young adolescents' transition experiences and the teacher and instructional factors that contribute to poor transitions provides a foundation for our teacher recommendations. These recommendations offer important avenues for middle school teachers to proactively address the academic, self-perception, and motivational needs of young adolescents as they transition into middle school.

Evaluate and Enhance Teaching Confidence. Given the negative student outcomes associated with low teacher efficacy, a successful middle school transition is partially dependent on middle school teachers reflecting upon and strengthening their confidence in their abilities to teach young adolescents (Eccles et al., 1993; Midgely, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1988). Low teacher confidence for middle school teachers may be the result of several factors, including inconsistencies in middle school certification and school-based contextual factors. While we know that middle schools should be staffed by teachers who are specifically prepared to work with young adolescents (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000), few states offer a separate middle school endorsement independent of elementary and high school certification. As a result, many middle school teachers may not be well-versed in the academic, social, and emotional needs of young adolescents. Therefore, through no fault of their own, they may not be as confident in their abilities to teach these students. In addition, contextual factors, such as the nature of young adolescence, departmentalized organizational structures, public perceptions about middle school teachers, school climate, and homogenized teaching values at the middle level, may negatively affect middle school teachers' confidence in their own teaching (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1988). For example, teachers in isolated, negative school environments that emphasize teacher-directed instruction, scripted curricula, rigid pacing guides, and test preparation may believe that their professional knowledge is not trusted or valued (Solley, 2007). Consequently, middle school teachers may feel less confident in their own professional knowledge and abilities.

In order to reflect upon and strengthen teaching confidence, we suggest that middle school teachers begin with personal reflection on their beliefs about their teaching abilities. These reflections should include responses to the following questions:

* What do you feel are the specific learning characteristics of young adolescents?

* What are the recommended strategies for teaching young adolescents?

* How comfortable do you feel with the content you are teaching?

* How comfortable do you feel with teaching young adolescents?

Additionally, we recommend that middle school teachers reflect on their school, grade level, and classroom environments. Reflection here should include the role of teaching peers in professional support and development, the emotional climate of the grade level and school, and peers' attitudes about the teaching profession and young adolescents. Examining school context will help middle school teachers understand how their environment and their peers influence teaching confidence. These reflections may take many forms: personal journaling, dialogue journaling, blogging, and informal note taking. Middle school teachers also should ask the students to provide anonymous feedback about their teaching. This will provide valuable information from the students' perspectives!

After analyzing teaching confidence, we recommend that middle school teachers create an action plan for individualized professional development. The purpose of this plan is to support and enhance teaching confidence. The plan may include additional coursework related specifically to middle schools, individualized professional readings, videotaped lessons, and/or teacher reading groups. For example, a small group of teachers may elect to read Turning Points 2000 to increase understanding of middle school tenets (Jackson & Davis, 2000) or How To Differentiate Instruction for Mixed Ability Classrooms (Tomlinson, 2001) to broaden their instructional repertoire. We also suggest that middle school teachers seek out informal peer coaching relationships. These collegial, non-evaluative relationships would provide positive support structures for discussion and exploration of practices, as well as accountability for trying new strategies.

Make Positive, Individualized Relationships With Your Students a Priority. The importance of establishing positive, individualized relationships with students cannot be understated, as human relationships are vital to an "inviting, supportive, safe environment" (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003, p. 12). The nature of the relationships formed between students and teachers is a critical factor in young adolescents' academic achievement, motivational levels, attitudes toward content, and overall transition experiences (Davis, Davis, Smith, & Capa, 2003; Murdock, 1999; Murdock & Miller, 2003; Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2004). While middle school teachers typically teach many more students than their elementary counterparts, this is not an excuse for failing to get to know all students on a personal level.

We recommend that middle school teachers make getting to know their students a priority at the beginning of the school year. In addition, we assert that students must be given the same opportunities to know their teachers and each other as unique, valued members of a cohesive classroom team. While we understand that these activities take time, building relationships facilitates learning for the entire school year. The time spent getting to know each other will pay significant learning dividends throughout the year.

Opportunities to get to know the students abound. Middle school teachers can use icebreaker activities during the first few weeks of school to set the tone for the learning environment. Examples include name games, personalized scavenger hunts and bingo activities that use students' interests and backgrounds, and such sharing games as "two truths and a lie." In addition, teachers may highlight a "person of the week" in each class as a means for showing commitment to knowing the school's stakeholders. Getting to know the students also can take a content focus. Middle school teachers might start the year with a biographical writing unit. This activity allows students to get to know each other, while providing teachers with baseline writing assessment data, as they teach about the writing process, interviewing, and presentation skills. Icebreakers and get-to-know-you activities also may be team-oriented and may focus on the importance of collaboration and cooperation. For example, teams of students can focus on solving a problem or completing a complex task together as a content-free way to practice cooperative learning skills. Finally, we suggest that middle school teachers make time for informal, unstructured opportunities to talk to students. This may include setting aside class time or lunch time to meet with students individually or in small groups, and having class meetings to provide opportunities for young adolescents to discuss their life experiences, problem-solve class issues, and publicly praise their peers.

Middle school teachers also can increase opportunities to get to know students well by advocating for organizational change in their middle schools. Instructional teams and advisory groups are particularly appropriate for enhancing student-teacher relationships (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003). Instructional teams of 2-4 teachers, as opposed to departmentalized structures, decrease the number of students assigned to a teacher, thus making it easier for teachers and students to get to know each other well (Jackson & Davis, 2000). Furthermore, instructional teams, when paired with alternative or block schedules, lead to increases in instructional time and planning time, all of which support the positive growth of student-teacher relationships (Barber & Olsen, 2000; Fisher & Frey, 2007). Finally, advisory groups pair small groups of students with teachers for the express purpose of building meaningful relationships (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003). These advisory groups might meet once a week initially, then perhaps once every two weeks, and may focus first on building student-teacher relationships, and later on service learning projects and social/personal interest topics.

Design Instruction With the Unique Developmental Needs of Young Adolescents in Mind. Young adolescents' emotional and cognitive development are equally important, and a smooth transition depends upon middle school teachers attending to both. The research literature describes young adolescents' perceptions of the middle school instructional environment as being in stark contrast to their developmental needs. While we know that young adolescents want to make choices, have more control, and be more influential (Midgley & Feldlaufer, 1987; NMSA, 2003; Rice & Dolgin, 2005), the current high-stakes testing context suggests a different reality. In fact, teachers acknowledge that pressure for students to perform well on tests negatively impacts their instructional practices (Pedulla et al., 2003), and that they are forced to teach in ways they recognize as developmentally inappropriate (Solley, 2007).

In light of these issues, we recommend that middle school teachers re-evaluate their instructional practices to see how they fit with young adolescents' instructional needs. First consider that instruction should allow adolescents to contribute, belong, and develop their life skills in the classroom (Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003). One way to accomplish this is to provide young adolescents with more opportunities for input and choice in the classroom. For example, a science teacher who is teaching a unit on weather might ask students to investigate weather phenomena of their choosing, set up learning stations with various extension activities related to the common core standards for weather, and assign a project in which students choose how to share the final product. Each of the previous examples provides young adolescents with autonomy and choice. Opportunities for autonomy could be even more simple: allow young adolescents to spread out around the classroom to work, provide a choice in what assignments to complete or questions to answer, and vote on which tasks to do first in class.

Middle school teachers also might consider adding such instructional strategies as cooperative learning, service learning, and integrated instruction to their instructional repertoire. Cooperative and collaborative learning activities are essential components of middle school instruction (Jackson & Davis, 2000; NMSA, 2003). Group activities that involve pairs, triads, or teams are appropriate, as they combine a content focus while capitalizing on young adolescents' social needs. Similarly, jigsaw cooperative learning activities foster interdependence and require students to be "experts" on a topic while learning from each other. Service learning is also appropriate for young adolescents, because they are developing an awareness of the larger world community and have a growing sense of fairness and injustice. As a result, service learning provides an avenue for addressing school and community problems with a content focus. Thematic, integrated approaches and project-based instructional approaches allow students to make connections between content areas and real life experiences--essential features of developmentally appropriate middle school instruction (Manning, 2000; NMSA, 2003).

In addition to having a choice in how content is accessed, young adolescents also need a voice in how to manage the classroom. Rather than imposing a top-down management style, provide opportunities for students' voices to be heard in terms of forming classroom rules and procedures at the beginning of the year. Middle school teachers might ask students what rules they think are necessary, and what they perceive as meaningful logical consequences in the classroom. The students' voices also can be heard throughout the school year during class meetings. In class meetings, students may work as a group to solve class problems, and publicly thank/praise their peers for their efforts. Being social and verbal is at the heart of being a young adolescent, and instructional strategies that capitalize on these attributes will enhance these students' school experiences.

Establish a Classroom Environment That Fosters Learning for Intrinsic Reasons. Research indicates that the motivational orientation of the middle school classroom is associated with academic and motivational declines across the transition (Anderman & Anderman, 1999; Anderman & Midgley, 1997). For young adolescents, an emphasis on learning for the purposes of improvement, effort, interest, and understanding (mastery) is favored over learning for the purposes of earning grades, standardized testing, and competing against other students (task).

It is vital that middle school classroom teachers analyze classroom motivational orientations in terms of the messages sent to students about learning. Does the emphasis lie in learning as a competition or for the purposes of testing well, or is learning presented as intrinsically motivating? Creating a classroom environment where students are mastery-oriented, as opposed to task-oriented, may improve motivation and achievement across the transition. As a middle school teacher, emphasize the best effort and biggest improvement over the best papers, the highest grades, and the highest achievers, in order to create a mastery-oriented, intrinsically motivating classroom. This emphasis is particularly important during early adolescence, when students' concerns about comparisons and fit with one another are heightened (Rice & Dolgin, 2005).

Intrinsically oriented, mastery learning classrooms provide challenging work for ALL students. The classroom work should emphasize developing understanding of content, as opposed to fact memorization. The use of differentiated instructional strategies is a critical element in a mastery-oriented classroom. Differentiation includes variations in amount of content learned, processes used for learning, and products created for assessment based on students' interests, learning styles, and abilities (Tomlinson, 2001). Middle school teachers who provide young adolescents with choices will help shift students from ability to goal orientations. Finally, we recommend the use of flexible grouping structures to move young adolescents away from tracked, ability groups and toward groups based on interest, heterogeneity, choice, and, at times, skill level. While some teachers believe that they are preparing students for the rigors of high school with competitive and extrinsically motivating tasks, research indicates that the development of intrinsic skills and beliefs is far more beneficial than externalized approaches (Anderman & Anderman, 1999).

Summary

The issue of middle school transition is complex, and middle school teachers must carefully consider their role in the transition experience. How middle school teachers build relationships, design instruction, and establish the classroom environment directly relates to young adolescents' adjustment to middle school. Even in this high-stakes testing era, middle school teachers can draw upon educational research to make developmentally appropriate decisions for young adolescents. By considering teaching confidence, getting to know students well, using appropriate instructional practices, and creating an intrinsically oriented learning environment, middle school teachers can positively support young adolescents as they move from elementary to middle school. Teachers, their beliefs, their classroom environment, and their classroom practices are all key components to ensuring successful middle school transitions for all young adolescents.

References

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Audra K. Parker is Assistant Professor, Childhood Education, University of South Florida, Tampa.

Stacey Neuharth-Pritchett is Professor, Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology, University of Georgia, Athens.

Figure 1
Transition Checklist for Middle School Teachers

Recommendation              Teacher Actions

Evaluate and enhance        Personal reflection on teaching
teaching confidence         confidence
                              * Reflective journaling
                              * Dialogue journaling with a peer
                              * Blogging
                              * Peer discussion groups
                            Create an action plan
                              * Professional reading clubs
                              * Video / audiotaping teaching
                              * Peer coaching

Make positive,              Classroom activities
individualized                *  Icebreaker activities
relationships with            * Team-building activities
students a priority           * Highlight individual students
                              * Create opportunities to talk to
                                students
                              * Share your interests and hobbies
                            Organizational changes
                              * Restructure from departmentalization
                                to instructional teams
                              * Establish advisory groups

Design instruction          Examine instructional practices
with young adolescents'       * Incorporate opportunities for choice
unique developmental            and student input
needs in mind               Instructional strategies
                              * Cooperative learning
                              * Service learning
                              * Problem-based learning

Establish a classroom       Mastery orientation over task orientation
environment that fosters      * Focus on effort and improvement
learning for intrinsic        * Emphasize understanding rather than
reasons                         memorization
                            Instructional strategies
                              * Flexible grouping
                              * Differentiated instruction
                              * Choice