Burn fat, build muscle: a content analysis of Men's Health and Men's Fitness.This study categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat the contents of a sample of Men's Health Men's Health Definition Men's health is concerned with identifying, preventing, and treating conditions that are most common or specific to men. and Men's Fitness Men’s Fitness is a men’s magazine published by American Media, Inc. Founded in the United States in 1987, it was originally called Sports Fitness. The premier issue featured Michael Pare from the television show, The Greatest American Hero. magazines published from 1999 to 2003. It found that these magazines were more likely to feature male images characterized char·ac·ter·ize tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es 1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless. 2. as low in body fat and very muscular muscular /mus·cu·lar/ (mus´ku-lar) 1. pertaining to or composing muscle. 2. having a well-developed musculature. mus·cu·lar adj. 1. than images characterized by other levels of fat and muscularity mus·cu·lar·i·ty n. The state or condition of having well-developed muscles. . The contents of the articles and advertisements included in these magazines, particularly in Men's Fitness, were found to emphasize leanness and muscularity. Exposure to these images and messages could contribute to concerns and behaviors related to achieving a lean and muscular physique physique /phy·sique/ (fi-zek´) the body organization, development, and structure. phy·sique n. The body considered with reference to its proportions, muscular development, and appearance. . More research is needed to understand the effects these magazines may have on different groups of men. Keywords: men's health, magazines, muscularity, body image, media ********** Research conducted with women suggests that media images of hard-to-achieve body ideals can be viewed as a sociocultural so·ci·o·cul·tur·al adj. Of or involving both social and cultural factors. so  ci·o·cul factor
promoting body dissatisfaction and unhealthy weight control behaviors
(Becker, Burwell, Gilman, Herzog, & Hamburg Hamburg, city, GermanyHamburg (häm`b  rkh), officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg (Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg), city (1994 pop. , 2002; Field et al.,
1999; Fallon, 1990; Heinberg, 1996; Levine & Smolak, 1996; Stice,
Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw & Stein Stein , William Howard 1911-1980.American biochemist. He shared a 1972 Nobel Prize for pioneering studies of ribonuclease. , 1994). Although sociocultural pressures may be exerted by other actors, such as family and friends, the media are considered powerful communicators of body ideals due to their accessibility, popularity, and pervasiveness (Heinberg, 1996; Mazur, 1986). Sociocultural standards of beauty for males emphasize strength and muscularity. When asked about body type preferences, boys as young as five or six prefer the mesomorphic mes·o·mor·phic adj. 1. also mes·o·mor·phous Of, relating to, or existing in a state of matter intermediate between liquid and crystal. 2. Of or relating to a mesomorph. type (well proportioned, average build), rather than ectomorphic ec·to·mor·phic adj. Of or relating to an ectomorph. [ecto(derm) + -morphic.] ec (thin) or endomorphic en·do·mor·phic adj. 1. Of or relating to an endomorph. 2. Created through endomorphism. [endo(derm) + -morphic. (fat) (Kirkpatrick & Sanders San´ders n. 1. An old name of sandalwood, now applied only to the red sandalwood. See under Sandalwood. , 1978; Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore, 1986). Within the mesomorphic category, a majority select the muscular mesomorphic body type, a V-shaped "muscleman"-type body "characterized by well-developed chest and arm muscles and wide shoulders tapering Tapering Gradually reducing the amount of a drug when stopping it abruptly would cause unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Mentioned in: Narcotics tapering, n down to a narrow waist" (Mishkind et al., 1986, p. 547). Men who meet this ideal are considered more attractive and receive more social benefits (Grogan, 1999; Mishkind et al., 1986). Before the development of electronic media, ideals of beauty had long been disseminated disseminated /dis·sem·i·nat·ed/ (-sem´i-nat?ed) scattered; distributed over a considerable area. dis·sem·i·nat·ed adj. Spread over a large area of a body, a tissue, or an organ. via art, music, and literature. However, as argued by Freedman freed·man n. A man who has been freed from slavery. freedman Noun pl -men History a man freed from slavery Noun 1. (1986), the impact of today's visual media is different than that of the visual arts visual arts npl → artes fpl plásticas visual arts npl → arts mpl plastiques visual arts npl → of the past. Historically, artistic depictions of human bodies were romanticized and perceived as unattainable. In today's media, however, the boundaries between fantasy and reality are blurred blur v. blurred, blur·ring, blurs v.tr. 1. To make indistinct and hazy in outline or appearance; obscure. 2. To smear or stain; smudge. 3. . Although images of models are endlessly manipulated and perfected via airbrushing and other techniques, they are presented as realistic and achievable representations of actual people. Moreover, television, magazines, and other media continuously disseminate dis·sem·i·nate v. dis·sem·i·nat·ed, dis·sem·i·nat·ing, dis·sem·i·nates v.tr. 1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed. 2. information on how to achieve the idealized i·de·al·ize v. i·de·al·ized, i·de·al·iz·ing, i·de·al·iz·es v.tr. 1. To regard as ideal. 2. To make or envision as ideal. v.intr. 1. physiques. As a result, the media today may have a more powerful influence on viewers' body image than the idealized artwork of the past. Studies suggest that the male body ideal disseminated in popular magazines has become more lean and muscular over the past 25 years (Law & Labre, 2002; Leit, Pope, & Gray, 2001; Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). Images of lean and muscular men also are prominently displayed on the covers of numerous health, fitness, and bodybuilding bodybuilding Developing of the physique through exercise and diet, often for competitive exhibition. Bodybuilding aims at displaying pronounced muscle tone and exaggerated muscle mass and definition for overall aesthetic effect. magazines for men. Although magazines targeted toward male bodybuilders have been around since the 1930s, these typically have been oriented o·ri·ent n. 1. Orient The countries of Asia, especially of eastern Asia. 2. a. The luster characteristic of a pearl of high quality. b. A pearl having exceptional luster. 3. toward "serious" bodybuilders. It was only in the late 1980s, when Men's Health and Men's Fitness were launched, that men's magazines This is a list of magazines primarily marketed to men. The list has been split into subcategories according to the target audience of the magazines. This list includes both 'adult' magazines as well as more mainstream ones. began to promote the desirability of "six-pack abs" and perfect pectoral muscles Pectoral muscles can refer to:
Research suggests that exposure to the lean and muscular ideal may contribute to body dissatisfaction, eating-disordered attitudes, dieting, a desire for greater muscularity, and related concerns among men (Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Leit, Gray, & Pope, 2002). In particular, the reading of men's fitness magazines has been found to be associated with the internalization Internalization A decision by a brokerage to fill an order with the firm's own inventory of stock. Notes: When a brokerage receives an order they have numerous choices as to how it should be filled. of the male ideal as physically fit as well as with body shape dissatisfaction and disordered eating Disordered Eating is a term that is used by some people to describe a wide variety of irregularities in eating behavior that do not warrant a diagnosis of a specific eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa. (Morry & Staska, 2001). This content analysis examined the contents of articles and advertisements in two popular men's health and fitness magazines--Men's Health and Men's Fitness--in order to develop inferences regarding their potential effects on men. Published by Rodale, Men's Health, which has a circulation of 1.7 million, is the third most popular magazine among men in the U.S., after Playboy Playboy monthly magazine renowned for nude photographs. [Am. Pop. Cult.: Misc.] See : Eroticism and Maxim ("Top Magazines," 2004). Men's Fitness, the second most popular men's fitness title, has an estimated circulation of approximately 600,000 ("Top Magazines," 2004). As described below, both images and text were coded. Differences between the two magazines also were examined. METHODS The units of sampling for this study were the individual magazines. From 1999 to 2003, Men's Fitness published 60 issues (one per month), while Men's Health published 50 issues (the January/February and July/August issues were combined each year). A sample consisting of 15 issues of each magazine (25% of the population of Men's Fitness and 30% of the population of Men's Health issues published in that time period) was used. Because the contents of magazines may, to some extent, reflect the time of year (for example, summer issues may be more likely to focus on improving physical appearance to look good at the beach), the sampling method was designed to ensure that particular months would not be overrepresented o·ver·rep·re·sent·ed adj. Represented in excessive or disproportionately large numbers: "Some groups, and most notably some races, may be overrepresented and others may be underrepresented" . For magazines published from 1999 to 2002, a constructed year was created. The 48 issues were listed chronologically chron·o·log·i·cal also chron·o·log·ic adj. 1. Arranged in order of time of occurrence. 2. Relating to or in accordance with chronology. and numbered sequentially. A starting number (11, corresponding to November of 1999) was randomly picked from a table of numbers. To form the constructed year, the next issues selected were December 2000, January 2001, February 2002, March 1999, April 2000, and so on. Three additional issues were selected from 2003. In order to ensure that these issues would represent different seasons, the first issue was picked at random (53, which corresponded to May 2003), and then every fourth issue was sampled systematically (January and September 2003). For the two magazines (Men's Health and Men's Fitness), issues corresponding to the same month and year were used. The units of data collection were articles and advertisements at least one page in length. In order to be selected for coding, articles had to stand alone and not be a part of a section containing a compilation of small pieces addressing different topics. The inclusion of all stand-alone articles one page or longer resulted in a sample size of 515 articles. Because the magazines in the sample contained approximately three times as many advertisements as articles, systematic sampling was used to obtain an advertisement sample of a similar size. Every third advertisement in each magazine was selected for inclusion. To prevent problems related to periodicity periodicity /pe·ri·o·dic·i·ty/ (per?e-ah-dis´i-te) recurrence at regular intervals of time. pe·ri·o·dic·i·ty n. 1. (e.g., in case similar ads were placed in the same location in different issues of a magazine), a different starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting point terminus a quo commencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the , ranging from the first ad to the third ad, was used. The contents of the articles and advertisements were coded using categories adapted from previous research (Nemeroff, Stein, Diehl, & Smilak, 1995; Petrie et al., 1996) and augmented based on the literature review conducted for this study. Two coding sheets--one for advertisements and one for articles--were developed, along with a detailed codebook codebook - data dictionary . CODING OF IMAGES The level of fat and muscularity of each adolescent or adult male image (excluding cartoons or drawings) was coded using two separate scales adapted from an existing instrument, the male scale (Law & Labre, 2002). Unlike the male scale, which combines levels of body fat and muscularity into eight categories, the scales used in this study allowed coders to code the levels of body fat and muscularity separately. The body fat scale is depicted de·pict tr.v. de·pict·ed, de·pict·ing, de·picts 1. To represent in a picture or sculpture. 2. To represent in words; describe. See Synonyms at represent. in Table 1. Images were coded into four possible categories: low body fat, medium body fat, high body fat, or can't tell--a category used for cases in which the coder could not determine the level of fat of an image (e.g., the man was wearing a suit). In addition to the information in Table 1, the scale also featured photographs providing examples of each body fat category. The scale used to code the muscularity of the male images in the sample is provided in Table 2. The scale included five categories: not muscular, somewhat muscular, very muscular, unnaturally muscular, and can't tell. The unnaturally muscular category was added to take into account the distinction between a high level of muscularity and the excessive level of muscularity that is characteristic of a professional bodybuilder. The scale included photographs providing examples of each muscularity category. CONTENTS OF ARTICLES For articles, information was collected regarding two variables: main topic and major benefits. Main topic was defined as what the article was about. Coders were instructed to pick only one response, unless it was impossible to do so. If so, a maximum of two choices could be selected. The categories for main topic were: * Leanness: Content related to decreasing weight or losing fat. * Muscularity: Content related to obtaining a muscular appearance. * Beauty: Content related to other aspects of physical appearance or attractiveness (e.g., hair styling, perfumes Famous perfumes classified by year of creation Year Name Company Perfumer 1709 Eau de Cologne Johann Maria Farina Johann Maria Farina (1685-1766) 1798 Eau Vivifiante Parfum Lubin Pierre François Lubin 1872 Hammam Bouquet , lotions lotions, n.pl nonoily treatments intended to be applied to the skin for a variety of cosmetic or medicinal purposes. , hair removal, grooming Combining, consolidating and segregating network traffic using devices such as digital cross-connects, add/drop multiplexers and SONET switches. Grooming is a telephone term that typically refers to managing high-capacity lines between central offices, carriers, ISPs and very large ). * Fitness/sports: Content related to increasing physical fitness (e.g., aerobic fitness aerobic fitness Clinical medicine A value obtained from exercise testing, which is expressed as either VO 2 peak–O2 consumption at peak exercise, or Wpeak , strength, performance, endurance Endurance See also Longevity. Atalanta feminine name denotes power of endurance. [Gk. Myth.: Jobes, 148] Boston marathon famous 26-mile race held annually for long-distance runners. [Am. Pop. Culture: Misc. , flexibility, speed, energy level) or sports. * Style: Content related to improving style, coolness, appeal (e.g., being associated with expensive cars, fashion, cars, designer sunglasses Designer Sunglasses is the name given to sunglasses made by designer label companies such as Christian Dior, Chanel and Ray Ban. The look and models change from season to season. The 'in-model' for 2006 will be outdated by new models for 2007 driven by the high powered fashion business , or other products; being seen as fashionable, cool, hip). * Health: Content related to physical or mental health (e.g., decreasing health risks for diseases, reducing stress, improving sleep, cholesterol, killing germs, aches and pains, allergies Allergies Definition Allergies are abnormal reactions of the immune system that occur in response to otherwise harmless substances. Description Allergies are among the most common of medical disorders. , sinusitis sinusitis Inflammation of the sinuses. Acute sinusitis, usually due to infections such as the common cold, causes localized pain and tenderness, nasal obstruction and discharge, and malaise. ). * Sex/romantic relationships: Content related to sex or romantic relationships (e.g., attracting women, better sex, how to satisfy a woman, increasing passion). * Financial/career: Content related to finances, career, legal issues (e.g., job interview). * Nutrition: Content related to food and beverages F&B is a common abbreviation in the United States and Commonwealth countries, including Hong Kong. F&B is typically the widely accepted abbreviation for "Food and Beverage," which is the sector/industry that specializes in the conceptualization, the making of, and delivery of foods. (e.g., recipes, diet plans). * Other: Other type of content not listed above. The variable major benefits (which was also used for categorizing advertisements) was defined as the main advantages to the reader of following the advice provided in the article or purchasing the advertised product and was coded using the categories listed below (coders were instructed to select all that applied). * Leanness: Decreasing weight or losing fat. * Muscularity: Obtaining a more muscular appearance. * Beauty: Improving other aspects of physical appearance or attractiveness. * Fitness/sports performance: Improving fitness or sports performance. * Style: Improving style, coolness, appeal. * Health: Improving physical or mental health. * Sex/romantic relationships: Improving sexual or romantic relationships. * Financial/career: Improving financial situation or career status. * No benefits: No benefits listed or implied. * Other: Cues suggesting that buying the advertised product or following the advice in the article will lead to other major benefits. Please list. CONTENTS OF ADVERTISEMENTS For advertisements, information was collected on two variables: type of product and main benefits. Regarding type of product, the following categories were used, with coders being instructed to select only one): automotive, performance-enhancing supplement, other nutritional supplement, clothes/shoes/accessories, grooming products (e.g., deodorant deodorant /de·odor·ant/ (de-o´der-int) 1. masking offensive odors. 2. an agent that so acts. de·o·dor·ant n. , toothpaste toothpaste, n See dentifrice. ), food or beverages, medical (e.g., prescription and nonprescription non·pre·scrip·tion adj. Sold legally without a physician's prescription; over-the-counter. drugs), media/communications (e.g., magazines, Web sites), exercise equipment, and financial/career. Regarding main benefits, the same categories were used as for articles. The coders--the researcher and an undergraduate male student--coded the issues. Following two training sessions and a pilot test, each coded half of the 30 issues in the sample, with three issues (10%) being coded by both coders so that reliability could be established. Reliability tests were conducted separately for the 56 advertisements and 59 articles included in the three issues, using Holsti's method (1969). The intercoder reliability was greater than 0.90 for all variables RESULTS A total of 496 advertisements and 515 articles were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. . Since the issues of Men's Health have more pages than those of Men's Fitness, the sample included a slightly larger amount of content from the former. Of the 1,011 articles and advertisements coded, 544 (54%) were from Men's Health and 467 (46%) from Men's Fitness. A total of 3,432 images of men were identified in the sample--1,799 in Men's Fitness and 1,633 in Men's Health. The majority of images were featured in articles (2,732), rather than advertisements (700), due to the use of multiple images in articles describing workout Workout Informal repayment or loan forgiveness arrangement between a borrower and creditors. workout 1. The process of a debtor's meeting a loan commitment by satisfying altered repayment terms. routines. Findings are provided next. LEVELS OF BODY FAT AND MUSCULARITY OF MALE IMAGES Of the 3,432 images of men identified in the two magazines, levels of body fat were coded for 2,426 images (for the others, the coders selected the "can't tell" category). The percentage of images characterized by low body fat (96%) was significantly higher than the percentages of images with medium body fat (2%) and high body fat (see Table 3). No significant differences were found between the two magazines regarding the level of body fat in images. Of the 3,432 images identified in the two magazines, levels of muscularity were coded for 2,306 images (1,993 in articles and 313 in advertisements). As depicted in Table 4, the percentage of images characterized as very muscular (82%) was significantly greater than the percentages of images in other categories. When the two magazines were compared, it was found that the very muscular images were more prevalent in Men's Fitness (85%) than in Men's Health (78%), while images characterized as not muscular or somewhat muscular were more common in Men's Health than in Men's Fitness. CONTENTS OF ARTICLES A total of 538 main topics were identified in the sample of 515 articles (some articles were identified as having two main topics). Table 5 presents the percentages of main topics of articles in the overall sample and by magazine. Leanness and/or muscularity was the main topic of more than a quarter of the articles in the sample, followed by mental or physical health (18%), fitness or sports (15%), sex/romantic relationships (12%), nutrition (9%), beauty and/or style (7%), and financial/career (2%). Topics listed under the "other main topic" category (13%) included product descriptions, lists of facts or statistics, and other miscellaneous topics such as travel, landscaping, and winter driving. Significant differences were found between the two magazines. While the two main topics in Men's Fitness were leanness and/or muscularity (35%) followed by fitness/sports (20%), in Men's Health, they were mental or physical health (22%) followed by and sex/romantic relationships (17%). Leanness/muscularity (16%) came in third place in Men's Health. Style or beauty as a main topic was more frequent in Men's Health (10%) than Men's Fitness (4%), while nutrition was more common in Men's Fitness (14%) than in Men's Health (5%). The coding sheet for articles also recorded information on the benefits of following the advice provided in the article. Of the sample of 515 articles, 56 (11%) were identified as not suggesting any benefits. These types of articles were often Q&As with celebrities, lists of statistics or other facts or curiosities, funny stories, and other articles that did not provide any type of advice to readers. A total of 659 major benefits were identified in the remaining 459 articles. Table 6 provides a comparison of the major benefits included in articles in the two magazines. Leanness and/or muscularity were suggested as major benefits in the majority of articles (34%) in the combined sample, followed by health (24%). However, again, differences were found between the two magazines. The articles in Men's Fitness were more likely than those in Men's Health to include benefits related to leanness/muscularity. In Men's Health, there was almost no difference in the percentage of benefits related to muscularity/leanness (25.5%) and benefits related to health (25.2%). Benefits related to fitness/sports performance were more common in Men's Fitness (20% compared to 11%), while those related to sex/relationships were more common in Men's Health (18% compared to 6%). CONTENTS OF ADVERTISEMENTS Regarding advertisements, two types of information were coded: type of product and major benefits of using the product. The types of products advertised by magazine are presented in Table 7. In general, the types of ads most frequently included in the sample were for products related to media and communications (17%), clothes and accessories (17%), performance-enhancing supplements (16%), automotive (15%), and grooming (12%). However, when the two magazines were compared, significant differences were found. For Men's Fitness, the majority of advertisements (35%) were for performance-enhancing supplements (PES pes (pes) pl. pe´des [L.] 1. foot. 2. any footlike part. pes n. pl. pe·des 1. The foot. 2. ), which accounted for only 3% of advertisements in Men's Health. These types of supplements often are marketed as promoting muscle growth and fat loss, which may help explain why benefits related to muscularity and/or leanness were more common in Men's Fitness than in Men's Health. For Men's Health, clothes/shoes/accessories was the top category, accounting for almost 24% of all advertisements (compared to 6% in Men's Fitness). In addition, advertisements in the automotive category also were more common in Men's Health (18%) than in Men's Fitness (9%). Many of these advertisements suggest style (i.e., increased coolness or appeal via association with expensive vehicles) as a benefit. In the sample of 496 advertisements, 710 major benefits were identified (see Table 8). Leanness and/or muscularity (23%) were the types of benefits most frequently promoted in advertisements. Beauty and style (22%) came in second, followed by benefits related to fitness (12%), health (10%), and sex or romantic relationships (9%). Other benefits included taste (4%), financial (3%), comfort or convenience (3%), entertainment (2%), and other miscellaneous types of benefits (10%). ("Taste," "comfort/convenience," and "entertainment" were categories created from descriptions provided under the "other benefits" category and removed from that category.) Significant differences were found between the two magazines regarding the benefits promoted in advertisements. Only Men's Fitness was found to have a majority of ads featuring muscularity and/or leanness as a benefit (38%). For Men's Health, ads promoting benefits related to beauty/style (30%) were more common than those related to leanness and/or muscularity (11%). The prevalence of benefits related to health was similar in ads included in the two magazines (10-11%). Fitness-related benefits were more common in the ads in Men's Fitness (17%, compared to 9%) and sex and romantic relationship benefits were more common in Men's Health (11% compared to 7%). DISCUSSION This content analysis found that the vast majority of male images featured in Men's Health and Men's Fitness magazines published from 1999 to 2003 were characterized by low body fat (96%) and high muscularity (82%). Moreover, the contents of the articles and advertisements in these magazines were more likely to focus on appearance than on fitness or physical performance. Achieving a lean and/or muscular appearance--rather than improving health, physical fitness, or sports performance--was the main topic of more than a quarter of the articles in the sample. The advertisements in the sample also were found to be more likely to promote benefits related to leanness and/or muscularity (23%) than benefits related to fitness (12%) or health (10%). Moreover, 22% of the benefits promoted in advertisements were related to beauty/style, which also are more associated with appearance than health or fitness. However, comparisons between the two magazines identified significant differences between them. Images characterized as very muscular or unnaturally muscular were more common in Men's Fitness (89%) than Men's Health (79%), partly because of advertisements for Joe Weider Josef E. "Joe" Weider (born November 29, 1922) is the Canadian co-founder of the International Federation of BodyBuilders (IFBB) along with brother Ben Weider and creator of the Mr. Olympia, Ms. Olympia and the now defunct Masters Olympia bodybuilding contests. bodybuilding products, which were included only in Men's Fitness (then owned by Weider Publications). While the main topic of the majority of articles in Men's Fitness magazine was leanness and/or muscularity, the articles in Men's Health were more likely to focus on health or sex/relationships than on leanness/muscularity. The benefits promoted in advertisements in the two magazines also differed, with the advertisements in Men's Health being more likely to promote leanness/muscularity and those in Men's Health being more likely to promote benefits related to beauty/style. Some of these differences can be explained by examining the types of products advertised in the two magazines. While most of the advertisements in Men's Fitness were for performance-enhancing supplements (PES), clothes/shoes/accessories was the top category in Men's Health. In addition, advertisements in the automotive category, which often promote benefits such as increased coolness or style, also were more common in Men's Health than in Men's Fitness. Because this study only analyzed the contents of fitness magazines, it does not allow for any conclusions to be made regarding the effects of exposure to these titles. However, several inferences can be made regarding how these contents could contribute to body image concerns among men. Findings from this content analysis suggest that fitness magazines represent one type of man as healthy and fit: the lean, cut, fitness model. Other types of healthy male bodies (e.g., without six-pack abdominals or extremely low levels of body fat) were not commonly represented in these magazines. When images representing medium or high body fat and low muscularity were included in these magazines, it was usually in a negative way. These types of photos were common in advertisements for weight-loss and/or muscle-building supplements, such as Hydroxycut and Xenadrine, which included photos of people before and after taking the supplements. While the "before" photos were characterized by medium or high body fat and low muscularity, the "after" photos were characterized by low body fat and high muscularity--thereby contributing to the perception that there is only one body type that is healthy and attractive for men. As suggested by social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), magazines featuring lean and muscular male models may provide a beauty standard for social comparisons that may lead to a discrepancy DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another, between one writing and another; a variance. (q.v.) 2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. between perceived and desired levels of leanness and muscularity. Once a discrepancy is perceived, the person making the comparison will try to eliminate it by engaging in behaviors designed to approximate the physical ideal. Exposure to advertisements featuring muscular men has been found to increase the discrepancy between college men's perceived level of muscularity and the level of muscularity that they would like to have (Leit, Gray, & Pope, 2002). As fitness magazines include a large number of these types of images, exposure to these magazines may contribute to a desire for greater leanness and muscularity among readers. Given the increasing rates of obesity obesity, condition resulting from excessive storage of fat in the body. Obesity has been defined as a weight more than 20% above what is considered normal according to standard age, height, and weight tables, or by a complex formula known as the body mass index. worldwide, the dissemination dissemination Medtalk The spread of a pernicious process–eg, CA, acute infection Oncology Metastasis, see there of the lean and muscular ideal can be seen as having the positive effect of contributing to weight control via exercise and diet change. However, the ideal look portrayed por·tray tr.v. por·trayed, por·tray·ing, por·trays 1. To depict or represent pictorially; make a picture of. 2. To depict or describe in words. 3. To represent dramatically, as on the stage. in these magazines is not just low in body fat; it is extremely low in body fat--low enough that six-pack abs can be seen. This type of physique does not result from following a balanced diet balanced diet n. A diet that furnishes in proper proportions all of the nutrients necessary for adequate nutrition. balanced diet and moderate exercise. It is a constructed look that requires a strict fitness and nutrition regimen regimen /reg·i·men/ (rej´i-men) a strictly regulated scheme of diet, exercise, or other activity designed to achieve certain ends. reg·i·men n. 1. designed to build muscle and keep body fat at minimum levels. The pursuit of this extreme appearance-related goal could lead to body image preoccupation pre·oc·cu·pa·tion n. 1. The state of being preoccupied; absorption of the attention or intellect. 2. Something that preoccupies or engrosses the mind: Money was their chief preoccupation. as well as disordered eating behaviors, the use of steroids steroids, class of lipids having a particular molecular ring structure called the cyclopentanoperhydro-phenanthrene ring system. Steroids differ from one another in the structure of various side chains and additional rings. and performance-enhancing supplements, overexercising, cosmetic surgery cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery for cosmetic purposes, such as the improvement of the appearance of the face by removing wrinkles or reshaping the nose. , and other related behaviors among men. CONCLUSION Findings from this content analysis suggest that fitness magazines disseminate only one type of male body as healthy, fit, and attractive: the lean and muscular physique. Moreover, the contents of these magazines were found to emphasize appearance goals over physical fitness or performance. Exposure to these types of titles may contribute to the desire for a lean and muscular appearance, thereby leading to an involvement in healthy activities, such as exercising and reducing intake of saturated fat saturated fat, any solid fat that is an ester of glycerol and a saturated fatty acid. The molecules of a saturated fat have only single bonds between carbon atoms; if double bonds are present in the fatty acid portion of the molecule, the fat is said to be and sugar. However, the ideal is an extreme, unrealistic representation, which may also contribute to body dissatisfaction and engagement in unhealthy, appearance-driven pursuits. More research is needed to investigate the effects these types of contents may have on different groups of men. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Magdala Peixoto Labre, 9020 SW 81 st Way, Gainesville, FL 32608. Electronic mail: mlabre@earthlink.net. REFERENCES Becker, A.E., Burwell, R.A., Gilman, S.E., Herzog, D.B., & Hamburg, P. (2002). Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged pro·long tr.v. pro·longed, pro·long·ing, pro·longs 1. To lengthen in duration; protract. 2. To lengthen in extent. exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. 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Journal of Communication, 4 7(1), 40-67. Heinberg, L.J. (1996). Theories of body image: Perceptual per·cep·tu·al adj. Of, based on, or involving perception. , developmental, and sociocultural factors. In J.K. Thompson (Ed.), Body image, eating disorders, and obesity: An integrative guide for assessment and treatment (pp. 27-48). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . Holsti, O.R. (1969). Content analysis for the social sciences and humanities. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Kirkpatrick, S.W., & Sanders, D.M. (1978). Body image stereotypes: A developmental comparison. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 132, 87-95. Law, C., & Labre, M.P. (2002). Cultural standards of attractiveness: A 30-year look at changes in male images in magazines. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 79(3), 697-711. Leit, R.A., Gray, J.J., & Pope, H.G. (2002). The media's representation of the ideal male body: A cause for muscle dysmorphia Muscle dysmorphia A subtype of BDD, described as excessive preoccupation with muscularity and body building to the point of interference with social, educational, or occupational functioning. ? International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31(3), 334-338. Leit, R.A., Pope, H.G., & Gray, Jd. (2001). Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of Playgirl play·girl n. A woman devoted to the pursuit of pleasurable activities. centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 29, 90-93. Levine, M.P. & Smolak, L. (1996). Media as a context for the development of disordered eating. In L. Smolak (Ed.), The developmental psychopathology Developmental psychopathology is the analysis of development of psychopathic tendencies in all aspects of mental aging throughout life. Developmental psychopathology is a sub-field of developmental psychology characterized by the following (non-comprehensive) list of of eating disorders: Implications for research, prevention, and treatment (pp. 235-257). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Mazur, A. (1986). U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation. Journal of Sex Research, 22,281-303. Mishkind, M.E., Rodin, J., Silberstein, L.R., & Striegel-Moore, R.H. (1986). The embodiment em·bod·i·ment n. 1. The act of embodying or the state of being embodied. 2. One that embodies: "The flag is the embodiment, not of sentiment, but of history" of masculinity masculinity /mas·cu·lin·i·ty/ (mas?ku-lin´i-te) virility; the possession of masculine qualities. mas·cu·lin·i·ty n. 1. The quality or condition of being masculine. 2. . American Behavioral Scientist, 29(5), 545-560. Morry, M.M. & Staska, S.L. (2001). Magazine exposure: Internalization, self-objectification, eating attitudes, and body satisfaction in male and female university students. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science behavioural science Noun the scientific study of the behaviour of organisms , 33(4), 269-279. Nemeroff, C.J., Stein, R.I., Diehl, N.S., & Smilack, K.M. (1995). From the Cleavers to the Clintons: Role choices and body orientation as reflected in magazine article content. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 16(2), 167-176. Petrie, T.A., Austin, L.J., Crowley, B .J., Helmcamp, A., Johnson, C.E., Lester, R., et al. (1996). Sociocultural expectations of attractiveness for males. Sex Roles, 35(9-10), 581-602. Spitzer, B.L., Henderson, K.A., & Zivian, M.T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40(7/8), 545-565. Stice, E.M., Schupak-Neuberg, E., Shaw, H.E., & Stein, R.I. (1994). Relation of media exposure to eating disorders symptomatology symptomatology /symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy/ (simp?to-mah-tol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with symptoms. 2. the combined symptoms of a disease. symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy n. : An examination of mediating mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology Journal of Abnormal Psychology is a scientific journal published by the American Psychological Association. It has previously been entitled Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology • , 103(4), 836-844. Top magazines by category (2004, September 20). Advertising Age, 75(38), S-2. MAGDALA PEIXOTO LABRE University of Florida University of Florida is the third-largest university in the United States, with 50,912 students (as of Fall 2006) and has the eighth-largest budget (nearly $1.9 billion per year). UF is home to 16 colleges and more than 150 research centers and institutes.
Table 1
Body Fat Scale
Body fat category Description
Low body fat Very lean, no signs of body fat visible.
Medium body fat Some body fat visible (e.g., love handles,
stomach not flat).
High body fat Obese. A large amount of body fat visible
(e.g., large stomach).
Can't tell Can't tell level of body fat or can't
distinguish between two levels.
Table 2
Muscularity Scale
Muscularity category Description
Not muscular No signs of muscle definition.
Somewhat muscular Some muscle definition.
Very muscular A lot of muscle definition
(e.g., ripped abdominals).
Unnaturally muscular The look of a professional bodybuilder,
a hypermale look achievable only through
steroid use.
Can't tell Can't tell level of muscularity or can't
distinguish between two levels.
Table 3
Levels of Body Fat of Male Images (in Percentages)
Comparison by magazine
Level of Overall (a) Men's Health Men's Fitness
body fat n = 2,426 n = 954 n = 1,472
Low 96.2 95.3 96.8
Medium 2.4 2.7 2.2
High 1.4 2.0 1.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square] = 4,317, df = 2, p < .000.
Table 4
Levels of Muscularity of Male Images (in Percentages)
Comparison by magazine (b)
Overalla Men's Health Men's Fitness
Level of muscularity n = 2,306 n = 855 n = 1,451
Not muscular 3.1 5.0 1.9
Somewhat muscular 11.8 16.5 9.0
Very muscular 82.2 77.8 84.7
Unnaturally muscular 2.9 .7 4.3
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square] = 4,068, df = 3, p < .000.
(b) [chi square] = 68.7, df = 3, p < .000.
Table 5
Main Topics of Articles
Comparison by magazine
Main topic Overall (a) Men's Health Men's Fitness
n = 538 n = 270 n = 268
Leanness/muscularity 25.2 15.9 34.7
Health 17.8 21.9 13.8
Fitness/sports 14.5 9.3 19.8
Sex/relationships 11.5 17.0 6.0
Nutrition 9.3 4.8 13.8
Beauty/style 6.9 10.0 3.7
Financial/career 2.0 4.1 0.0
Other 12.6 17.0 8.2
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square] = 149.8, df = 7, p < .000.
(b) [chi square] = 82.6, df = 7, p < .000.
Table 6
Major Benefits in Articles
Comparison by magazine (b)
Major benefits Overall (a) Men's Health Men's Fitness
n = 659 n = 306 n = 353
Muscularity/leanness 34.4 25.5 42.2
Health 24.4 25.2 23.8
Fitness/sports performance 15.8 10.8 20.1
Sex/relationships 11.5 18.0 5.9
Styleibeauty 7.1 9.2 5.4
Financial/career 2.1 4.6 0.0
Other benefits 4.6 6.9 2.5
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square] = 374, df = 6, p < .000.
(b) [chi square] = 69.1, df = 6, p < .000.
Table 7
Types of Products Advertised
Comparison by magazine (b)
Type of product Overall (a) Men's Health Men's Fitness
n = 496 n = 293 n = 203
Media/communications 16.7 18.4 14.3
Clothes/shoes/accessories 16.7 23.9 6.4
Performance-enhancing
supplements 16.3 3.4 35.0
Automotive 14.7 18.4 9.4
Grooming 12.3 13.7 10.3
Food 6.3 6.1 6.4
Medical 5.2 5.5 4.9
Other supplements (c) 2.6 1.0 4.9
Financial (c) 1.6 2.0 1.0
Exercise equipment (c) 1.0 0.3 2.0
Other topic 6.5 7.2 5.4
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square = 58.7, df = 7, p < .000.
(b) [chi square] = 104.9, df = 7, p < .000.
(c) Included under "other topic" for chi-square test.
Table 8
Major Benefits Promoted in Advertisements
Comparison by magazine (b)
Major benefit Overall Men's Health Men's Fitness
n = 710 n = 392 n = 318
Leanness/muscularity 23.2 11.0 38.4
Beauty/style 22.1 29.8 12.6
Fitness 12.4 8.9 16.7
Health 10.6 10.7 10.4
Sex/relationships 9.0 11.0 6.6
Taste (c) 4.2 2.8 6.0
Financial (c) 3.4 4.3 2.2
Comfort/convenience (c) 2.5 3.8 0.9
Entertainment (c) 2.4 4.1 0.3
Other benefits 10.1 13.5 6.0
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(a) [chi square] = 50, df = 5, p < .000.
(b) [chi square] = 106, df = 5, p < .000.
(c) Included under "other benefits" for the chi-square tests.
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