Boccaccio's Decameron as a primary literary source for the musical movement of Ars Nova in Italy.

Giovanni Boccaccio's time-honored work Decameron provides the primary literary account (Testi 228) of the drastically altered attitude regarding the role and influence of music, which occurred in response to the Ars Nova movement. Originated by the French composer Philippe de Vitry, its impact on Italian musical compositions of the fourteenth century was quite substantial, although largely confined to the secular works of the time. Decried as inappropriate for use in sacred compositions, its binary tempo segmentation was nonetheless appealing and was quickly incorporated into many profane works; resulting in a dramatic increase in the genre's popularity. As the influence of the Catholic Church and the Empire waned, music began to assume new roles within society and became very much a part of everyday life. Throughout his narration of the ten days that constitute the Decameron, Boccaccio depicts this new attitude regarding music; an art form which had previously fallen largely within the domains of the church and the cultural elite (Gallo 78-79). A comparison between this collection of short stories and the writings of the great medieval author Dante Alighieri serves to underscore the dramatic cultural reorientation with regard to music, which had taken place since the latter's demise.

The fourteenth century was a time of fundamental change. Once dominated by a transcendental conception of the world and a belief in the absolute superiority of the sacred over the profane, society as a whole began to question this viewpoint. This wide scale secularization was the culmination of historical and political events, which served to destabilize the balance that had previously existed within the international community. Operating on social and cultural aspects of life, this process led to the formation of a profound distinction between divine revelation and human understanding, between Church and State, and between religion and science.

The arts, literature in particular, manifested this ideological shift more rapidly and to a greater degree than did the other aspects of everyday life. If religion had inspired the majority of thirteenth-century authors' works, both in Latin and vernacular, then it was secular inspiration to prevail throughout this new era. A few short decades after Dante had so eloquently summarized the transcendental ideals of the Middle Ages in his Divine Comedy, Giovanni Boccaccio penned his highly celebrated Decameron, a collection of short stories based upon human themes and, therefore, explicitly in antithesis with the former work. Through his narrative, Boccaccio offers the reader, not only a glimpse into the mindset of his time, but also an idea of music's new conception and its role in society. During the fourteenth century, the production of profane musical works became larger and more noteworthy than that of their sacred counterparts. The transplantation of the Holy See from its former stead in Rome, to the town of Avignon, France, undoubtedly contributed to this trend. It was likely that the church's vocal opposition to the counterpoint technique, which features the simultaneous performance of two or more melodic lines and was in fashion at the time, did much to further its progress.

Toward the end of the fourteenth century, French culture had begun to exert a significant influence over Italy; the papacy's relocation only served to strengthen ties between the two countries. This cultural exchange allowed for contamination of the Italian musical style, and it is around this time that we can begin to observe the first hints of the French movement of Ars Nova within Italian works.

Within his treatise entitled Ars Nova ("The New Art," 1320), Philippe de Vitry (1291-1361), one of the great intellectuals of his time and a friend of Petrarch, (1) laid the groundwork for this new practice. By making use of binary tempo (2) segmentation within his own compositions, de Vitry's ideas were in opposition with medieval norms. Previously, only time segmentations in three units, intended to represent the Holy Trinity, was considered "perfect" by the Holy See and, therefore, permitted for use in liturgical chants.

Targeted arguments were made in opposition to the type of multiple voice polyphony (3) that characterized Ars Nova. It was alleged that such an elaborated style would distract parishioners from, rather than focus them on, the religious rituals that were being performed. Under this musical scheme, different and independent melodic lines are sung simultaneously, and it was thought that such a confluence of sounds would affect the comprehension of the words being sung, and consequently, the meaning of the sacred scriptures. Because of the staunch resistance offered the Papal Curia in the form of this argument, the use of such polyphony was disallowed in the sacred works of the time, effectively confining its application to secular songs. The latter benefited greatly as a result, allowing the popularity of such profane music to overshadow that of sacred compositions during the fourteenth century.

Evidence, both direct and indirect, of the Ars Nova movement's influence on Italian culture, can be found in the vernacular literary works of the time, specifically the "poesia per musica" and contemporary and subsequent novelistic productions. The former is essentially a hybrid genre, inspired by the principles of de Vitri's movement. It includes such new poetical forms as madrigali, (4) cacce (5) and ballate, (6) all of which were originally conceived for the purpose of setting their texts to music. From a stylistic perspective, the Italian Ars Nova is distinguished from its French roots by the increased sense of freedom evidenced in the melodic extension and in the more highly stressed rhythmic patterns of the musical settings. It is important to note, however, that the musical components of such hybrid works were not intended to directly illustrate the literary images or semantic meanings contained within the poetry (a function which would later be ascribed to the madrigals (7) of the sixteenth century). Here, music provided an appropriate frame in which the text could unfold.

Boccaccio's Decameron is the first work written in prose to bear the hallmarks of the new attitude toward music promoted by the movement of Ars Nova. In it, a merry "brigata" [group] of three young men and seven women takes refuge within a villa near Florence, in order to escape the plague that ravaged the city in 1348. Music assumes a pivotal role throughout the course of their daily activities, offering the reader a glimpse into people's perception of this art form during Boccaccio's time. Songs and instrumental works provide a buffer from the suffering that is occurring elsewhere and allow the characters to pass their time in a rather blissful and lighthearted manner (Ghisi 283). The "cornice" (frame or introduction) for the events to come is provided by the author's "Introduction" to the First Day:

   The delicately cooked foods were brought in and fine wines were
   ready to be poured; ... Everyone was delighted to see everything so
   beautiful and well arranged, and the meal was accompanied by
   merriment and pleasant conversation. Since all the ladies and young
   men knew how to dance (and some of them even knew how to play music
   and sing very well) ... the Queen ordered that instruments be
   brought ... Dioneo picked up a lute and Fiammetta a viola, and they
   began softly playing a dance tune ... the Queen began to dance a
   carola with the other ladies and two of the young men; and when
   that was over, they all began to sing gay and carefree canzonette
   [songs]. In this manner they continued until the Queen felt that it
   was time to retire; [...] ("Introduction," First Day)

Examination of this passage makes clear that the activities of the first night were centered on the production and enjoyment of music and inspired feelings of joy and release in everyone present. Music is not only depicted as being a refined art, but one which is capable of reestablishing the balance and the order in individuals' lives (Tarugi 413), creating a relaxed and harmonious atmosphere and restoring the minds and bodies of those who have survived so much suffering. With this interpretation in mind, we turn to the words of Dante, written more than a half century earlier:

   And I: 'If no new law prevents remembering
   or practicing those love songs that once brought
   peace to my restless longings in the world,'
   I said, 'pray sing, and give a little rest
   to my poor soul which, burdened by my flesh,
   has climbed this far and is exhausted now.'
   Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona
   began the words of his sweet melody
   their sweetness still is sounding in my soul. (Purgatory II:
   106-14)

In the form of this rather piteous request that Dante, the pilgrim, makes to the soul of Casella (a musician and former friend) we see that the great poet also acknowledged and valued the healing power of music. Casella's sweetly sung love songs had once calmed Dante's passions and healed his sorrows and pain; services of which the weary traveler wished to avail himself once again. Beyond their mutual acknowledgment of the healing and pleasurable aspects of music, Dante and Boccaccio shared a belief that the medium possessed spiritual properties as well. The importance that each author placed on the medium's qualities, relative to its more "earthly" attributes, was very much a reflection of the times in which they lived. Dante valued music first and foremost as a sacred medium, believing that musical harmony resonated from the heavens, a view that had first been articulated by the philosophers of ancient Greece. In contrast, Boccaccio chose to emphasize its ability to impart a sense of joy and relief to human listeners. The latter viewpoint echoes the secularization, which occurred in the fourteenth century, while the former embodies the Middle Ages' preference for all things sacred. Additional comparisons between the writings of these two authors highlight this attitudinal divide.

It is within the sphere of Saturn, whose unique quietness sets it apart from the others the pilgrim has traversed, that Dante encounters the contemplative souls. Upon demanding of the ascetic monk Peter Damian, the reason for such silence, the author learns that the blessed souls remain mute for his benefit. Just as Beatrice's smile would be blinding to his mortal eyes, listening to the souls' divine chants could deafen him, because his senses are yet too weak:

"and tell me why Heaven's sweet symphony is silent here in this sphere while below in all the rest its pious strains resound." "Your hearing is but mortal like your sight," he said. "There is no singing here just as there is no smile on Beatrice's face." (Paradise XXI: 58-63)

Dante viewed music as primarily a sacred art, a perfect manifestation of which, could not be adequately produced or appreciated by human beings. Boccaccio also appreciated the divine aspects of the medium, yet chose to emphasize to a greater degree its place within secular society. This outlook is most apparent within two of the stories from the Tenth Day; in the Sixth Story we read:

   And by the time supper was almost over, with only the fruit
   remaining to be served, the two young girls appeared again dressed
   in two very beautiful silk robes, bearing two enormous silver trays
   filled with all kinds of fruits that were in season, and they set
   these trays upon the table before the King. And having done this,
   they stepped back a bit and began to sing a song whose words began:

      The point that I have reached, O Love,
      Could not be told in many ways,

   singing with such sweetness and delight that the King, who was
   looking on and listening with pleasure, thought that all the
   hierarchies of the angels had descended there to sing.

An analysis of the preceding passage makes immediately clear, the author's concept of music and its functionality. New and critical associations between everyday activities and the enjoyment of music are illustrated by the terminology used, thereby highlighting the art form's redefined cultural significance. For instance, music's coupling with the words "supper" and "table," signifies recognition of its restorative capacity with regard to both the body and mind, qualities which make it a corporal necessity which must be satisfied daily. The ideas of "beauty," "royalty," "refinement" and "abundance," speak to music's ability to communicate such noble characteristics as health and elegance in their broadest meanings. The "sweetness," "pleasure" and "delight" that are mentioned address the pleasant sensations and enjoyment, which are aroused in the listener, as they bear witness to a musical performance. The King's mental reference to "hierarchies of angels" hints at the continued association between music and the divine; however, the relative importance of this connection has been largely diminished in favor of a more human-centered understanding and appreciation of the art form.

Throughout the short stories, Boccaccio makes extensive use of music's earthly qualities as a means of effectively separating his "merry group" from the tortuous events which are unfolding just beyond the borders of their self-created sanctuary (Tarugi 417). These ten individuals engage in frequent musically oriented activities, usually accompanied by dancing. As a result, the pain and anguish, which might otherwise torment these young survivors of the plague, are effectively kept at bay. The author uses music, much as a physician might a medicinal compound: as a means of alleviating suffering. Beyond its capacity to provide a safe haven for his characters, music is employed as a means of delineating, for the reader, the sharp contrast that exists between the reality of these ten people and the torment experienced by those outside of their fellowship. It is not hard to imagine the bleakness of Florence, which exists just beyond their Villa's boundaries, ravaged by plague and poignantly devoid of music.

In Decameron, musical activities frequently commence immediately after a meal or before the characters retire for the evening, or an afternoon nap. This relationship underscores the progression away from the medieval concept of music, which was focused primarily on its religious and sacred aspects, to a new appreciation of its more corporal properties; a concept that will be fully developed in the early part of the sixteenth century by Baldesar Castiglione. In his work The Book of the Courtier, Castiglione will define music as "a most welcome food for the spirit" ["gratissimo cibo d'animo'], meaning a sentiment that echoed the assertions of ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle (8):

   I remember also having heard once that both Plato and Aristotle
   wish a man who is well constituted to be a musician; and with
   innumerable reasons they show that music's power over us is very
   great ... to induce a good new habit of mind and an inclination to
   virtue, rendering the soul more capable of happiness.... For, if we
   rightly consider, no rest from toil and no medicine for ailing
   spirits can be found more decorous or praiseworthy in time of
   leisure than this; ... music (is) a most welcome food for the
   spirit [...] (Book I, ch. 47)

In his writings, Boccaccio also communicates to the reader the idea that the music itself has value, apart from its association with the accompanying text. The following phrase, taken from the sixth story, helps to illustrate this concept: "[...] they stepped back a bit and began to sing a song whose words began [...]." Here we see that the words are mentioned as a secondary consideration, with the commencement of the song (the music) being of primary importance. A portion of an excerpt that has previously been mentioned," [...] the King, who was looking on and listening with pleasure, thought that all the hierarchies of angels had descended there to sing" provides further evidence of the author's appreciation for the medium's purely acoustical qualities. It was not the words that the two girls were singing to the King, which reminded him of angels, but rather the sweetness of their voices.

Boccaccio also acknowledged music's ability to communicate with the listener at a deep psychological level. While this concept was far from revolutionary, it is the way in which the author chooses to make use of this property that underscores the new cultural atmosphere to which he bore witness. In the following example, taken from the Seventh Story of the Tenth Day, we see music's power to directly affect psychology, employed for the accomplishment of a uniquely "human" task:

   Now, since her (Lia's) father had offered to do anything she
   wished, the idea the idea came to her that before she died she
   might let the King know about her love and her decision to live no
   longer, if she could find some proper means of doing so; and so one
   day she requested that Minuccio d'Arezzo come to her. Minuccio was,
   in those days, considered a very fine singer and musician, and was
   very liked by King Peter, and Bernardo, thinking that Lisa wished
   to hear him play and sing some music, had Minuccio sent for.

Since Lisa is unable to fully convey her intense love for the King using her own words, she calls upon the musician Minuccio to compose a canzonetta, in order to accomplish the task. This is not to say that the young lady is lacking in nerve or verbal capacity, rather, she desires her feelings to be communicated through song, confident that such a vehicle will allow the message to touch the King at a deeper level, than would words alone. The idea that music deepens the impact of the text it accompanies provided much of the impetus for the production of the sacred works of the past. Here, we see evidence that this property can be successfully used to further "mortal," rather than spiritual ends.

The above passage also speaks of the personal refinement and perfection that accompany the production of music. Minuccio is presented as a man in possession of unique and praiseworthy qualities that extend from, but are not limited to, his musical abilities. The statement: "Minuccio was, in those days, considered a very fine musician, and was very liked by King Peter ..." communicates quite succinctly this coupling of personal traits and abilities. This concept is confirmed as Boccaccio continues his narrative: "Like the obliging man that he was, he immediately came to her [...] she said to him: "Minuccio, I have chosen you as the most trusted custodian of a secret of mine ..." We see here, a portrayal of the musician as a man of highest caliber, who has earned the appreciation and recognition of his counterparts and betters alike.

As the interaction between the love-struck Lisa and her would-be messenger Minuccio continues to unfold, Boccaccio chooses to once again illustrate music's power over the human psyche. This time, however, he does not depict it as a medium for enhancing one's intended message, but rather demonstrates its capacity to affect the listener in ways that were not expected, even by the composer himself:

   [...] after comforting her somewhat with soothing words, he played
   some dance songs sweetly on his viol and then sang her some songs,
   all of which only provided more fire and flame to the young girl's
   love, rather than the intended consolation.

Meant to calm the girl, Minuccio's songs had the opposite effect by fueling her passion for the King. This is because, in Lisa's subconscious mind, the connection between music and her feelings of adoration was so close, as to be inseparable, a fact which her confidant had not fully appreciated. The need to wield the power of music with great care was first articulated by Plato in Republic, when he stressed that the selection of works for the masses must be conducted with the utmost care:

   We must seek out such artists as have the talent to pursue the
   beautiful and the graceful in their work, in order that our young
   men shall be benefited from all sides [...] rhythm and harmony
   permeate the inner part of the soul, bring graciousness to it, and
   make the strongest impression, making a man gracious if he has the
   right kind of upbringing; [...] he will praise beautiful things,
   rejoice in them, receive them into his soul, be nurtured by them
   and become both good and beautiful in character. (Book III, 401
   d-e)

Dante also expressed concern over the possible detrimental effects of music on the human condition. Playing the part, as he did, of the resounding and articulate voice of medieval values, Dante feared secular music's ability to corrupt the souls of the listeners by amplifying passions, which could in turn cause them to loose possession of their minds. While we see that Boccaccio also acknowledges the sometimes unpredictable effects of secular music, unlike Dante, he does not reject the medium on these grounds.

After departing from Lisa, Minuccio seeks out an individual whom he knows to be skilled with verse, in order to write the text, which will communicate the young girl's feelings to King Peter:

   Minuccio left and went in search of one Mico da Siena, who in those
   days was considered quite a good rhymester, and with entreaties, he
   convinced him to compose the following canzonetta:

   Arise, my Love, and go to see my lord,
   and tell him of the torments I am suffering,
   and tell him I am close to death,
   for I must hide my yearning out of fear.
   With clasped hands, Love, I beg of you,
   go to the place where my lord dwells.
   Tell him how much I want him, how I love him,
   so sweetly my heart in love;
   and that I fear to die from all the fire
   inflaming me, and that I cannot wait
   to free myself from pain as sharp as this,
   which I endure for his sake as I yearn.
   Fearing, feeling all my shame.

      Ah! For God's sake, make it known to him. [...]
   For these words Minuccio promptly devised a melody, which had a
   sweet and sorrowful lilt as befitted the text, [...]

The fact that the creation of appropriate text preceded that of the accompanying music may seem to hint at the words' greater importance. This is likely not the message that the author is attempting to convey, rather this sequence is related to the nature of contemporary poetical forms. Beginning with the works of Petrarch, poetry reached a higher level of intimacy and was better able to communicate emotions and interior conflicts. This new style, however, was not easily adapted to pre-exisiting musical compositions, as had been the case with its antecedents. Thus, it is most likely out of necessity that Minuccio composed the music to complement the verse, and is not a reflection of its being the lesser of the two arts.

In his Decameron, Boccaccio bears witness to the evolution of a new approach to the composition of music to accompany poetry: as a vehicle for increasing the impact of the verse by heightening the emotional response that it evokes. As a musician, Minuccio strives not only to create an appropriate accompaniment to the verbal message, but also to magnify the intense passion that it is intended to convey. When presented in combination with music, poetical verse can become more to the listener than simply a collection of words and ideas; it can speak to them at a much deeper psychological and emotional level. This effect is exactly what Lisa had in mind when she chose a song as the appropriate, and in fact the only forum, capable of expressing her love. From the reaction of the audience (the King in particular) to Minuccio's performance it is evident that the desired effect was achieved:

   [...] and on the third day he turned up at court, where king Peter,
   who was still at breakfast, asked him to sing a song to the strains
   of his viol. He thereupon began to sing and play this melody in
   tones of such sweet harmony that all those present in the regal
   hall appeared to be spellbound, so silently and raptly did they
   listen, the king himself being more engrossed, perhaps, than any
   other.

Here we bear witness to music's unique capacity to convey emotion, particularly the most human of all sentiments: love. In this context, we see a love song cast in a rather positive light. It serves the purpose for which it was created, which is to convey the deep and tormented desires of a young girl to the man she desires. Dante provides us with a counterpoint to this outcome and from his narration of the episode involving Casella, we can draw still more evidence of the attitudinal shift which had occurred since his time:

   "Amor che ne la mente mi ragiona"
   began the words of his sweet melody
   their sweetness still is sounding in my soul.

   My master and myself and all those souls
   that came with him were deeply lost in joy,
   as if that sound were all that did exist. (Purgatory II, 112-17)

Dante clearly recognizes the profound influence of music over the souls of human beings. He portrays the listeners as being entranced by Casella's song, transported, as it were, to an alternate reality. Unlike in Boccaccio's recounting of Minuccio's courtly appearance, however, this type of subconscious communication is depicted as subversive and even dangerous. The souls remain stalled just outside the gates of Purgatory, their ascension to the mountain's peak, and thus, their own salvation, forgotten in the presence of the captivating melody. Rather than allow them to remain engrossed in the song at the expense of reaching their divine destination, Dante enlists Cato ("The Just Old Man") to sharply rebuke the souls and thereby refocus them on the task at hand:

   And while we stood enraptured by the sound
   of those sweet notes--a sudden cry: "What's this,
   you lazy souls? 'It was the Just Old Man.
   "What negligence to stand around like this!
   run to the mountain, shed that slough which still
   does not let God be manifest to you!"(Purgatory II, 118-23)

Dante condemned secular music, a vehicle of human corruption and sin, to stay forever outside the gates of Purgatory. In contrast, Boccaccio embraces the medium and all of its potential effects, making it the thread with which the plot of Lisa's love story is woven. When her tale finally reaches an end, it is the sweetness and beauty of Minuccio's song, which inspires the King's piety and ensures the young girl a prosperous and joyful future. Writing from the perspective of a member of a secularized culture, Boccaccio provides the reader with a view of music's properties and rightful place in society, which is highly divergent from that expounded by Dante Alighieri just a half century before. No longer reserved for use in praising God and mistrusted for its power to affect human psychology, we see that music has become a source of enjoyment, relaxation and release. This art form is also depicted as a medium whose communicative abilities can be harnessed, although the effectiveness with which they can be wielded, and the ultimate results of their employment, are highly dependent upon circumstance. Italy's introduction to the Ars Nova movement led to a revolution in people's attitudes with regard to music, which mirrored the large-scale cultural shift ongoing at the time; and Boccaccio's Decameron is the first literary work to show evidence of the this movement by portraying music in its newly assumed role.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbiati, F. Storia della musica. Vol. 1. Milano, Garzanti, 1967-68.

Alighieri, Dante. Paradise. Translated with notes and Commentary by Mark Musa. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1984.

--. Purgatory. Translated with notes and Commentary by Mark Musa. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1981.

Asor Rosa, A. Petrarca e la cultura del Trecento. Firenze: La Nuova Italia, 1978.

Basso, Alberto, et al., eds. Dizionario enciclopedico universale della musica e dei musicisti. Torino: UTET, 1999.

Boccaccio, Giovanni. Decameron. Translated by Mark Musa and Peter Bondanella. New York: Norton, 1982.

Castiglione, B. The Book of the Courtier: The Singleton Translation, an Authoritative Text Criticism. Ed. Daniel Javitch. New York: Norton, 2002.

Cattin, G. "Il Medioevo I" (II, 1). Storia della musica. A cura della Societa Italiana di Musicologia. Torino, EdT, 1979.

Della Corte, A. Antologia della storia della musica: dalla Grecia antica all'ottocento. Torino: Paravia, 1945.

--. Storia della musica. Torino: Unione tipografico-editrice torinese, 1964.

Della Corte, A., and G. M. Gatti. Dizionario di musica. Torino: Paravia, 1959.

Gallo, F. A. "La polifonia nel Medioevo" (II, 2). Storia della musica. A cura della Societa Italiana di Musicologia. Torino: EdT, 1991.

Ghisi, F. "Immagini poetiche del Boccaccio imitate dalla lirica per musica dell'Ars Nova." L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento. Dagli atti del III Congresso internazio --nale sul tema: "La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la letter --atura." A cura di A. Ziino. Siena-Certaldo 19-22 luglio 1975, sotto il patrocinio della Societa Italiana di Musicologia, 1978.

Grout, D .J. A History of Western Music. New York: Norton, 1964.

Marti, M. Purgatorio II. Lectura Dantis Scaligera. Firenze: Le Monnier, 1967.

Pirrotta, N. "Ars Nova e Stil novo." Rivista italiana di musicologia 1 (1966): 3-19.

--. Music and Culture in Italy from the Middle Ages to the Baroque: A Collection of Essays. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1984.

--, ed. The Music of Fourteenth Century Italy. Amsterdam: American Institute of Musicology, 1954-64.

Pistelli Rinaldi, E. La musicalita di Dante. Firenze: Le Monnier, 1968.

Plato. Republic. Trans. G. M. A. Grube. Revised C. D. C. Reeve. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992.

Schurr, C. E. "Dante e la musica." Quaderni di Esercizi. Musica e spettacolo. Perugia: Universita degli Studi di Perugia e Centro di Studi Musicali in Umbria, 1994. 82-88.

Stanley, Sadie, et al., eds. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed. London: Grove, 2001.

Tarugi, G. "La musicale cornice del Decamerone e l'onesta 'humanitas' di Giovanni Boccaccio." L'Ars Nova italiana del Trecento. Dagli atti del III Congresso inter nazionale sul tema: "La musica al tempo del Boccaccio e i suoi rapporti con la let teratura." A cura di A. Ziino. Siena-Certaldo 19-22 luglio 1975, sotto il patrocinio della Societa Italiana di Musicologia, 1978.

Testi, F. La musica italiana nel Medioevo e nel Rinascimento. Voll. 1-2. Milano: Bramante, 1969.

MARCO CEROCCHI

La Salle University

NOTES

(1) In 1350, Petrarch wrote to his French friend Philippe de Vitry: "... all virtue, all noble delights are difficult to obtain. By descending, a man arrives at obscene pleasures; by ascending, at honourable ones" (Familiares, IX 13).

(2) Metrical pattern of two beats in a composition, visually represented by vertical lines along the musical score.

(3) Polyphony is a musical technique characterized by the simultaneous combination of multiple and autonomous melodic lines sung by different voices. This is in contrast both with homophony (which utilizes a dominant melodic line accompanied in the same rhythm by the other voices, thus providing the harmonic texture) and monophony (a technique which displays only one melodic line, regardless of the number of vocal parts).

(4) A madrigale (in English, "madrigal") is a secular vocal work that originated in Italy in the fourteenth century, mostly written for two voices (sometimes three), generally accompanied by instruments and set to short love poems. In the sixteenth century, the madrigal started to feature up to five and even more voices written in polyphonic style; each voice part has its own melody and it is independent of the others. The sixteenth-century madrigal is distinguished because there is a closer relationship with the text set to music, and a noticeable difference in the harmonic and rhythmic patterns followed by the single voices.

(5) Caccia is a musical form that originated from the Italian fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The term literally means "hunt." Its music consists of a canon (a rigid pattern in which each newly entering voice precisely replicates--almost "hunting"--the previous one and generally follows at a measure distance); it is sustained by an independent tenor (the only structural part of the entire composition), which can be either vocal or instrumental.

(6) A simple song of natural construction, intended for dancing; it usually features verses characterized by the same poetical pattern and may present a refrain.

(7) See note number four.

(8) Both Greek Philosophers wrote about music. Plato, in particular, focused on music in his work Republic, and the following passages are especially informative in this regard: Book Three, 400 d-e; and 401 d-e; Aristotle in Politics: Book Seven, ch 13: 1332a, 2-11, and 1449b 26-28; Book Eight, ch.3: 1337b, 28-1338a, 2.