Blood lead levels and remediation of an abandoned smelter site.Numerous studies have examined the health effects of lead exposure and have documented adverse health effects for a range of exposure levels (1-20). Several studies have documented positive associations between blood lead levels and soil or household dust levels (21-25). However, few published studies have examined blood lead levels in communities with an inactive smelter contaminated contaminated, v 1. made radioactive by the addition of small quantities of radioactive material. 2. made contaminated by adding infective or radiographic materials. 3. an infective surface or object. with mining and smelting smelting, in metallurgy, any process of melting or fusion, especially to extract a metal from its ore. Smelting processes vary in detail depending on the nature of the ore and the metal involved, but they are typified in the use of the blast furnace. wastes (22,26-29). Health concerns have been associated with soil lead levels above 150-500 ppm (20). In 1989, lead levels as high as 1,520 micrograms per gram (parts per million parts per million mg/kg or ml/l; see ppm. , ppm) were identified in residential soil samples 300 feet from an inactive lead/zinc smelter site in Socorro, New Mexico Socorro is a city in Socorro County in the U.S. state of New Mexico. It stands in the Rio Grande Valley, at an elevation of 4579 feet (1396 m). The population was 8,879 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Socorro CountyGR6. , (population 8,159: 1990 census). The smelter had been in operation from 1883 to 1894. A slag pile coveting 500,000 square feet remains, with lead concentrations up to 24,800 ppm in the pile. Homes are located as close as 20 feet to the pile. Access to the pile was not restricted by fencing until 1990. Removal actions were conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent agency of the U.S. government, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It was established in 1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution, noise pollution, and radiation and to ensure the safe handling and (EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid. EPA abbr. eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic. EPA, n. ) between August 15, 1990, and January 9, 1991. Contaminated soil and slag from the residential areas were consolidated on the smelter property and covered with a cap of clay and fill dirt Fill dirt is earthy material which is used to fill in a depression or hole in the ground. Fill dirt is usually subsoil (soil from beneath the top soil) and underlying soil parent material which has little soil organic matter or biological activity. . A fence was built around the area, and warning signs were posted. This study, conducted by the New Mexico New Mexico, state in the SW United States. At its northwestern corner are the so-called Four Corners, where Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah meet at right angles; New Mexico is also bordered by Oklahoma (NE), Texas (E, S), and Mexico (S). Department of Health (NMDOH NMDOH New Mexico Department of Health ) and funded by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry The United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, (ATSDR) is an agency for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services that is directed by a congressional mandate to perform specific functions concerning the effect on public health of hazardous (ATSDR ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry ), compares the pre- and post-cleanup blood lead levels of the residents living near the site. In addition, blood lead levels of residents near the site were compared to blood lead levels of other community residents. Associations for other risk factors, such as occupational exposure, and elevated blood lead levels were also examined. Methods Selection and definition of study areas The community of Socorro, New Mexico, was divided into three study areas: 1) the smelter area, 2) the northeast area, and 3) the town area. The smelter area was defined as the 63 properties identified by the EPA in 1990 as having soil lead levels above 500 ppm. Thirty-two of these properties were within 1/4 mile of the center of the slag pile, with the remainder properties within 1/2 mile. Residences were located on 37 of the properties. None of the streets in the smelter area were paved at the time of the study. A neighborhood located on the opposite side of the community, two miles northeast of the smelter, was selected as one comparison site, the northeast area. There was no historical evidence that this area would have elevated soil lead levels due to mining, milling, or smelter activities, although wind could have blown smelter contamination in that direction. The northeast neighborhood is similar to the smelter neighborhood in its diverse mix of home types on varying lot sizes. Some roads in this area were unpaved. The third area, the town area, included residents who participated in the study because of concern about lead, but did not live in the smelter or northeast areas. Most were within 1/2 mile of the smelter. Eleven homes were over one mile from the smelter. Collection of blood samples On July 31 and August 1, 1990, a lead screening clinic was offered by NMDOH at the community health office in Socorro, located in the town area. Residents were invited to the clinic through a public notice in the local newspaper, a mailing of individual letters, and door-to-door, in-person visits. In October 1991, a second screening clinic was offered using the same notification methods to those who had participated in the first clinic and any other interested residents of the areas. The methods and contract laboratory (a nationally-recognized, certified laboratory, recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. ) were the same as those used for the first screening. The detection limit for blood lead was 5 ug/dl. Collection of soil samples In March 1990, the EPA collected soil samples from 26 residential properties for lead analysis by x-ray fluorescence X-ray fluorescence (XRF) is the emission of characteristic "secondary" (or fluorescent) X-rays from a material that has been excited by bombarding with high-energy X-rays or gamma rays. (XRF XRF X-Ray Fluorescence XRF X-Ray Flash XRF Cross Reference XRF Extended Recovery Facility (IBM) XRF Extended Reliability Feature XRF Cross Reference File XRF External Reference ). Grids within [+ or -] 150 ppm of the established action level of 500 ppm were retested. For pre-remediation lead levels, utilizing the EPA data, two estimates of soil lead burden were calculated: 1) an average of all samples taken on the property and 2) the highest lead level measured on the property. In October 1991, samples were collected from 32 residential properties in the three study areas by the New Mexico Department of Health. Two yard specimens were collected, one from the yard comer closest to the smelter slag pile and one from the opposite comer. Two indoor dust samples were collected from the family room and the youngest resident's bedroom. For post-remediation lead levels, two estimates of soil and dust lead levels were calculated: 1) an average of the two measures and 2) the highest level. The specimens were analyzed by the NMDOH's Scientific Laboratory Division (SLD (Second Level Domain) See Internet domain name. ). SLD is an accredited accredited recognition by an appropriate authority that the performance of a particular institution has satisfied a prestated set of criteria. accredited herds cattle herds which have achieved a low level of reactors to, e.g. laboratory for soil lead testing. Questionnaires At the screening clinics, one adult per household was interviewed by a staff member of NMDOH or ATSDR about other possible risk factors for lead exposure. Topics covered by the 1990 questionnaire included: demographic characteristics (such as education and income for the household, age, gender, and ethnicity for children younger than six years of age), characteristics of the residence (age, source of water, presence of lead pipes), occupations of adults, hobbies and leisure activities, use of home-grown vegetables; food-related uses of ceramic or clay pottery, children' s play habits, and use of slag materials in the garden and yard. The questionnaire administered in 1991 had additional questions including date of birth and sex of all household members, and occupational and recreational use of firearms This is an extensive list of small arms — pistol, machine gun, grenade launcher, anti-tank rifle — that includes variants. : Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A
Data analysis Statistical analyses of collected blood, environmental, and questionnaire data were completed using the Statistical Analysis System (SAS (1) (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, www.sas.com) A software company that specializes in data warehousing and decision support software based on the SAS System. Founded in 1976, SAS is one of the world's largest privately held software companies. See SAS System. ) of the SAS Institute SAS Institute Inc., headquartered in Cary, North Carolina, USA, has been a major producer of software since it was founded in 1976 by Anthony Barr, James Goodnight, John Sall and Jane Helwig. . As recommended by ATSDR, a value of 2.5 ug/dl was assigned to blood lead levels below the detection limit of 5 ug/dl. Student's t-test A t test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic has a Student's t distribution if the null hypothesis is true. History The t of means (two-tailed) was used to compare differences among the three geographic areas in blood lead levels, and paired t-tests were used to compare the same individuals across the two years of the study. Blood lead levels were compared with environmental lead levels, and variations among blood lead levels were examined by different factors as assessed with questionnaire data. Results Participation rates There were 212 people enrolled in the study (Table 1). Enrollment occurred when the individual had his/her blood drawn in 1990 and/or 1991, or by being listed as a family member in a household with a completed questionnaire in 1990 or 1991. A total of 198 individuals were enrolled in 1990, and an additional 14 individuals were enrolled in 1991. In 1991, completed questionnaires were obtained for 108 participants. This included 94 of the 1990 participants and 14 new participants. Of the 198 participants in 1990, 10% had moved, 22% could not be located, 12% refused to participate in the second year, and 4% scheduled appointments but did not come to the clinic. One individual died during the intervening year. Valid blood lead levels (in which the laboratory had sufficient blood for a test) for 1990 were measured for 156 of the 198 participants (78.8%). In 1991, blood lead levels were obtained for 77 of the 109 (70.6%) participants. There were 66 participants who had blood lead levels evaluated for both 1990 and 1991. Blood lead levels Blood lead measurements were available for 156 participants in 1990 and 77 participants in 1991. Five participants who had [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 1 OMITTED] worked during the previous six months at a lead battery plant were identified along with 10 additional participants who lived in households with these workers. Blood lead measurements for 1990 and/or 1991 were available for 13 of these participants. Data on blood lead levels for these individuals were analyzed separately since the major source of lead exposure was likely due to occupation. In 1990, mean blood lead levels were highest in individuals living in the smelter area and lowest for those living in the town area (Table 2); however, blood lead levels for individuals living in the three areas were not significantly different. In 1991, the mean blood level for study participants living in the smelter area was significantly higher than that of study members living in the town area. For the 59 individuals with both pre- and post-cleanup blood lead measurements, the pre-cleanup mean blood lead level was highest for smelter area participants and lowest for town area participants; this difference was statistically significant. Comparing the mean blood lead levels between 1990 and 1991, the blood lead levels dropped in all three areas (Table 2). The decrease was significant for the smelter and town areas. Examining only those 59 individuals participating in both years, post-cleanup mean blood lead level decreased between 1.62-3 ug/dl, depending on the geographic area. The decrease was significant for all three sites. In 1990, there were two children under the age of six years and two children six to 18 years of age whose blood lead levels were 10 ug/dl or greater (Table 2). Three of the children lived in the smelter area, and one in the northeast area. In 1991, only one child' s blood lead was elevated (10 ug/dl). This child had a blood lead level of 9 ug/dl in 1990. In 1990, blood lead levels of adults ranged from less than 5 ug/dl to a high of 18 ug/dl (Table 2). Six adults and five individuals of unknown age had elevated blood lead levels (10 ug/dl or greater). In 1991, adult blood lead levels ranged from less than 5 ug/dl to 10 ug/dl. Only one adult had an elevated blood lead level (10 ug/dl). Blood lead levels for the 13 participants who were in families with at least one member working at a lead battery plant were higher than for those without this occupational exposure (Table 3). Significantly higher average blood lead levels for occupationally-exposed participants were found in 1990 both for the smelter area (19.4 ug/dl) and the town area (7.88 ug/dl) than for nonoccupationally-exposed participants in the smelter area (5.83 ug/dl) and the town area (4.71 ug/dl). Blood lead levels for 1991 were available for two participants living in the smelter area and four participants in the town area. Their blood lead levels decreased in 1991 or remained the same. Soil and House Dust Lead Levels Both average and highest soil lead levels in the smelter area decreased significantly in 1991 from their levels in 1990 (Table 4). However, post-cleanup in 1991, soil and dust lead levels in the smelter area were also significantly higher than those in the town area and the northeast area. Association between soil, house dust, and blood lead levels Using linear regression Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. , no significant association (p[less than].05) was observed between 1990 blood lead level and either estimate of soil lead level (average soil lead level and highest soil lead level). In 1991, for an increase of 1,000 ppm in average soil lead level, the blood lead level decreased 10 ug/dl (slope = -0.0105, p = .05). Other environmental and behavioral risk factors for elevated blood lead levels No significant differences in prevalence rates of other environmental and behavioral risk factors for elevated blood lead levels were observed between those with blood lead levels less than 10 ug/dl and those with blood lead levels of at least 10 ug/dl (Z-test) (Table 5). Discussion Evidence was found to suggest that residents in the smelter area may have had elevated blood lead levels prior to EPA remediation when compared to residents in at least one other neighborhood. After the [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 2 OMITTED] EPA emergency remediation, the average blood lead level in smelter area participants decreased, but blood lead levels remained higher than those for town and northeast area participants. However, similar decreases were also observed in the mean blood lead level for town and northeast area participants. The child with the highest 1990 blood lead level (24 ug/dl) lived in the northeast area. Measurements in 1991 suggest that soil lead levels were not generally elevated in this neighborhood. The father had worked as a foundry worker, a painter, and a glass worker in the past six months. He also refinished and painted furniture in the home as well as worked with car solder solder (sŏd`ər), metal alloy used in the molten state as a metallic binder. The type of solder to be used is determined by the metals to be united. Soft solders are commonly composed of lead and tin and have low melting points. Hard solders (i. . His blood lead level was 7 ug/dl. The family could not be located for the 1991 study. Two children with 1990 blood lead levels of 10 ug/dl and 11 ug/dl lived in a residence bordering the smelter slag pile. Table 3. Blood Lead Levels (ug/dl) of Participants Who Were in Families with at Least One Member Working at a Lead Battery Plant in the Past Six Months. Site Family Age 1990 Blood Lead 1991 Blood Lead
Smelter A ? 27.0 not taken
A 3 11.0 not taken
A 3 15.0 not taken
A 55 25.0 not taken
A 59 17.0 13.0
B ? 20.0 not taken
B ? 29.0 not taken
C ? 10.0 10.0
Town D ? [less than]5.0 not taken
D 3 9.0 [less than]5.0
D 6 6.0 [less than]5.0
D 30 14.0 [less than]5.0
E 54 not taken 35.0
Soil lead levels were not measured at this site. The father' s 1990 blood lead level was 12 ug/dl. The blood lead levels of other family members ranged from 6-9 ug/dl. The father used solder as part of his work. Both children played and rode bicycles on the smelter railings. Possible sources of [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 4 OMITTED] elevated blood lead include contact with the slag material and dust while playing as well as lead brought home on the father' s clothes. The family did not participate in the 1991 study. Elevated blood lead levels were observed in two additional children from the smelter area. In one child, the 1990 blood lead level measured 10 ug/dl; no blood lead measurement was taken in 1991. In another child, the 1990 blood lead level was 9 ug/dl, and in 1991, it was 10 ug/dl. Their mother's blood lead level in 1990 was 10 ug/dl; in 1991, it dropped below detection level. The blood lead levels of the other family members were below 10 ug/dl. The residence was located 700 feet from the nearest slag pile. In 1990, the average soil lead level was 306 ppm; in 1991, the average soil lead level was 91 ppm. The average house dust lead level was 260 ppm with the highest sample being 320 ppm. In 1991, the study found that the children played outside throughout the neighborhood, played and rode bicycles on the tailings Tailings (also known as tailings pile, tails, leach residue, or slickens[1]) are the materials left over[2] after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the worthless fraction of an ore. , and did not wash their hands after playing with dirt. Differential follow-up rates may have affected the pre- and post-cleanup differences by area in the mean blood lead level. In the smelter area, approximately 28% of the 1990 participants returned to have their blood lead measured in 1991, compared to 25% in the northeast area and 63% in the town area. If participants lost to follow-up are more likely to be those with higher blood lead levels who would most benefit [TABULAR DATA FOR TABLE 5 OMITTED] from the remediation activities, then, the observed reduction would be an underestimate of the true reduction. An increase in blood lead of 1-7.6 ug/dl for each 1,000 ppm increase in soil lead has been observed in studies conducted in urban areas and areas with operating smelters (21,22,23). Studies have also examined the blood lead levels in residents living on or near old mining and smelting sites (22,26-29). In Telluride, Colorado
The Town of Telluride, a Home Rule Municipality, is the county seat of San Miguel County in the southwestern portion of the State of Colorado in the United States. , a significant correlation was observed between house dust lead and blood lead, but not between soil lead and blood lead (22). In Park City, Utah Park City is a city located in Summit County, Utah, United States. It is one of two major resort towns in Utah, the other being Moab. It is considered to be part of the Wasatch Back and a part of the Salt Lake City metropolitan area. , higher mean blood lead levels were found in children who lived in a subdivision. constructed on mine tailings (9.3 ug/dl) than in controls (5.3 ug/dl), but the differences were not significant (29). In a sample taken six months later, the mean blood lead level of children living on the tailings was 10.4 ug/dl compared to 9.2 ug/dl of controls. In this study, a statistically significant positive correlation Noun 1. positive correlation - a correlation in which large values of one variable are associated with large values of the other and small with small; the correlation coefficient is between 0 and +1 direct correlation was not observed between 1990 blood lead levels and either estimate of soil lead concentration (average soil lead levels and highest soil lead level), which was similar to the results of the Telluride Telluride (tĕl`yərīd), town (1990 pop. 1,309), seat of San Miguel co., SW Colo., on the San Miguel River in the San Juan Mts., inc. 1887. study. In Telluride, as indicated above, associations were found with house dust, probably because levels of exposure to indoor dust would be higher than to outside soil. If indoor dust samples had been available in 1990, a correlation between indoor dust lead levels and blood lead levels might have been observed. Of 24 individuals with blood lead levels of 10 ug/dl or higher, nine worked at a battery plant or lived in households where at least one member worked at such a plant. However, higher soil and dust lead concentrations in the smelter area could have also contributed to these elevated lead levels. The remaining 15 individuals lived in households where no family member worked in a lead battery plant. This group included four children (18 years of age or younger), six adults, and five participants of unknown age. Of these, seven lived in the vicinity of the smelter site. In 1991, one additional child and one additional adult were identified as having blood lead levels 10 ug/dl or above. Both lived in the smelter area. For the children in this study, it appears that a major source of exposure to lead in the environment was the smelter tailing pile. Both pre- and post-cleanup, children used the tailing piles as a play area and a bike-riding area. Children were also exposed to lead through adults' activities, such as painting and use of solder. The limitations of this study include low statistical power due to the small number of participants, especially children, and the low number and limited coverage of the soil and dust lead samples. Also, it was not possible to determine the amount of change in blood lead concentration in participants with levels less than the detection limit. Finally, residents in the smelter area were aware of the remediation and may have been more likely to report activities that exposed them to the contaminated soil. In summary, blood lead levels were higher in smelter area study participants than in study participants from other areas of Socorro, New Mexico. Blood lead levels dropped in all three geographic areas after the EPA emergency remediation of the smelter area, possibly due to better lead awareness after publicity about the cleanup, about the health effects of lead, and about other possible sources of exposure. Thus, it is not possible with this study to evaluate the effectiveness of the soil remediation by itself. As has been found in other studies, our study found that families with members occupationally exposed to lead had a higher risk of elevated blood lead levels. At the time of this study, New Mexico did not have a program for blood lead testing, education, or intervention. With federal funds Federal Funds Funds deposited to regional Federal Reserve Banks by commercial banks, including funds in excess of reserve requirements. Notes: These non-interest bearing deposits are lent out at the Fed funds rate to other banks unable to meet overnight reserve , such a program currently exists, and we hope that further follow-up of children in areas with contaminated soil can occur. References 1. Bellinger, D., A. Leviton, C. Waternaux, H. Needleman and M. Rabinowitz (1987), "Longitudinal analyses of prenatal prenatal /pre·na·tal/ (-na´tal) preceding birth. pre·na·tal adj. Preceding birth. Also called antenatal. prenatal preceding birth. and postnatal postnatal /post·na·tal/ (-na´t'l) occurring after birth, with reference to the newborn. post·na·tal adj. Of or occurring after birth, especially in the period immediately after birth. lead exposure and early cognitive development,"N. Engl. J. Med., 316:1037-1043. 2. Needleman, H.L., A. Schell, D. Bellinger, A. Leviton, and E.N. Allred (1990), "The long-term effects of exposure to low doses of lead in childhood-an 11-yearfollow-up report,"N. Engl. J. Med., 322:83-8. 3. 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Exposure to these metals has been linked to immune, kidney, and neurotic disorders. from smelters: epidemiology and toxic consequences," Environ. Res., 25:204-24. 7. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1988), The Nature and Extent of Lead Poisoning lead poisoning or plumbism (plŭm`bĭz'əm), intoxication of the system by organic compounds containing lead. in Children in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. : Report to Congress, U.S. Department Health and Human Services Noun 1. Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979 Department of Health and Human Services, HHS , Public Health Service, Atlanta, Ga. 8. Selevan, S.G., P.J. Landrigan, F. B. 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It is a railroad center and has uranium refineries and smelting works for the silver-lead mines at Broken Hill. cohort study A cohort study is a form of longitudinal study used in medicine and social science. It is one type of study design. In medicine, it is usually undertaken to obtain evidence to try to refute the existence of a suspected association between cause and disease; failure to refute : environmental exposure to lead and children's abilities at the age of four years," N. Engl. J. Med., 319:468-75. 12. Needleman, H.L. and C.A. Gatsonis (1990), "Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children: a meta-analysis of modern studies," JAMA JAMA abbr. Journal of the American Medical Association , 263:673-8. 13. Spurgeon, A. (1992), "Is there an adverse effect on the intellectual development of children exposed to low levels of lead," Indoor Environment, 1:300-7. 14. Schroeder, S.R., and B. Hawk (1987), "Psycho-social factors, lead exposure and IQ," Monogr. Am. Asso. Ment. Defic., 8:97-137. 15. Hatzakis, A., A. Kokkevi, C. Maravelias, and K. Katsouyanni, et al (1989), "Psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and intelligence deficits in lead-exposed children," In: Smith, M.A., L.D. Grant, and A.I. Sors (eds.), Lead exposure and Child Development: An International Assessment, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 211-23. 16. Smith, M., T. Delves Delves is a village in County Durham, in England. It is situated a short distance to the south of Consett. , R. Lansdown, B. Clayton, and P. Graham (1983), "The effect of lead exposure on urban children: The Institute of Child Health Southampton study," Develop. Med. Child Neurol. (Suppl), 47:1-54. 17. Harvey, P.G., M.W. Hamlin, R. Kumar, G. Morgan, A. Spurgeon, and H.T. Delves (1988), "Relationship between blood lead, behaviour, psychometric, and neuropsychological test Neuropsychological test A test or assessment given to diagnose a brain disorder or disease. Mentioned in: Bender-Gestalt Test performance in young children," Brit brit also britt n. 1. The young of herring and similar fish. 2. Minute marine organisms, such as crustaceans of the genus Calanus, that are a major source of food for right whales. . J. of Dev. Psych psych also psyche Informal v. psyched, psych·ing, psyches v.tr. 1. a. To put into the right psychological frame of mind: ., 6: 145-56. 18. Davis, J.M. (1990), "Risk assessment of the developmental neurotoxicity neurotoxicity /neu·ro·tox·ic·i·ty/ (noor?o-tok-sis´it-e) the quality of exerting a destructive or poisonous effect upon nerve tissue. of lead," Neurotoxicology, 11:285-92. 19. Silbergeld, E.K. (1992), "Neurological neurological, neurologic pertaining to or emanating from the nervous system or from neurology. neurological assessment evaluation of the health status of a patient with a nervous system disorder or dysfunction. perspectives on lead toxicity," In: Needleman H.L. (ed.), Human Lead Exposure, CRC Press The CRC Press, LLC is a publishing group which specializes in producing technical books in a wide range of subjects. While many of their books relate to engineering, science and mathematics, their scope also includes books on business and information technology. , Boca Raton Boca Raton (bō`kə rətōn`), city (1990 pop. 61,492), Palm Beach co., SE Fla., on the Atlantic; inc. 1925. Boca Raton is a popular resort and retirement community that experienced significant industrial development in the 1970s and 80s. , Fla., pp. 89-103. 20. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1992), Toxicological Profile for Lead, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Noun 1. Department of Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979 Health and Human Services, HHS , Public Health Service, Atlanta, Ca. 21. Rabinowitz, M.B., and D.C. Bellinger (1988), "Soil lead-blood lead relationship among Boston children," Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 41:791-7. 22. Steele, M.J., B.D. Beck, B.L. Murphy, and H.S. Strauss (1990), "Assessing the contribution from lead in mining wastes to blood lead," Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol., 11: 158-90. 23. Angle, D.R., A. Marcus, A. Cheng, and M.S. McIntire (1984), "Omaha childhood blood lead and environmental lead: a linear total exposure model," Environ. Res., 35: 160-70. 24. Mielke, H.W., B. Blake, S. Burroughs, and N. Hassinger (1984), "Urban lead levels in Minneapolis: the case of the Hmong children," Environ. Res., 34:64-76. 25. Schilling, R.J., and R.P. Bain (1988), "Prediction of children's blood lead levels on the basis of household-specific soil levels," Am. J. Epidemiol., 128:197-205. 26. Heyworth, F., J. Spickett, M. Dick, B. Margetts, and B. Armstrong (1981), "Tailings from a lead mine and lead levels in schoolchildren schoolchildren school npl → écoliers mpl; (at secondary school) → collégiens mpl; lycéens mpl schoolchildren school ," Med. J. Aust., 2:232-4. 27. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1992), Arsenic arsenic (är`sənĭk), a semimetallic chemical element; symbol As; at. no. 33; at. wt. 74.9216; m.p. 817°C; (at 28 atmospheres pressure); sublimation point 613°C;; sp. gr. (stable form) 5.73; valence −3, 0, +3, or +5. and Lead Exposure Study of Residents Living Near the Rocker Operable operable /op·er·a·ble/ (op´er-ah-b'l) subject to being operated upon with a reasonable degree of safety; appropriate for surgical removal. op·er·a·ble adj. Unit of the Silver Bow Creek Bow Creek is a two and a quarter mile long tidal estuary of the River Lee and is part of the Bow Back Rivers in Newham, east London, England. Ships were built at Orchard House Yard and launched in the creek where they could travel along the River Lee Navigation or south to Superfund Site, Rocker, Mont., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, Ga. 28. Colorado Department of Health, University of Colorado at Denver
In 1912, the University of Colorado established a downtown Denver campus to meet the needs of the city's rapidly expanding and Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1990), Leadville Metals Exposure Study, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, Ca. 29. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (1988), The Silver Creek Silver Creek can refer to: Places
Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry grant #H75ATH690120-01. Millicent Eidson, M.A., D.V.M., Environmental Epidemiologist, Division of Epidemiology, Evaluation, and Planning, New Mexico Dept. of Health, P.O. Box 26110, Santa Fe Santa Fe, city, Argentina Santa Fe, city (1991 pop. 341,000), capital of Santa Fe prov., NE Argentina, a river port near the Paraná, with which it is connected by canal. , NM 87502. Kristine Tollestrup, Ph.D., M.P.H., Research Asst. Professor, Center for Population Health, University of New Mexico The University of New Mexico (UNM) is a public university in Albuquerque, New Mexico. It was founded in 1889. It also offers multiple bachelor's, master's, doctoral, and professional degree programs in all areas of the arts, sciences, and engineering. School of Medicine, Family and Community Medicine Dept., 2400 Tucker Ave. NE, Albuquerque, NM 87131. |
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