Beyond Johnny Appleseed: learning English as a new language through ethnically diverse literature.

Language and culture are intrinsically connected (Banks, 2006; Bennett, 2002; Chaika, 1994; Damen, 1987) and dynamically changing (Banks, 2006). Learning to communicate effectively in a new language involves gaining familiarity with the present-day culture of the country in which one resides. For both learners of a second language and those of a foreign language, this can mean developing an awareness of the changing demographics of the country or countries where the language is spoken. In this article, the importance of promoting language acquisition through ethnically diverse literature is examined, followed by suggestions for books to use in the classroom and related activities.

The linguistic, cultural, and ethnic mixture in many countries, including the United States, is changing rapidly and varies significantly from such old standbys as "Johnny Appleseed" or "Dick and Jane." According to the U.S. Census Bureau (2003), the number of people living in the United States who reported being foreign-born increased by 57 percent between 1990 and 2000, from 19.8 million to 31.1 million, while the total U.S. population increased 13 percent. Between 1989-90 and 2003-04, the enrollment of students with limited English proficiency in U.S. public schools more than doubled, from 2,030,451 students to 5,013,539 (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs [NCELA], 2005). Therefore, it is recommended that learners of English, both inside and outside of the United States, become familiar with a rich diversity of cultures.

Learning a new language requires development of grammatical, socio-linguistic, and strategic competencies (Yule, 2006). Sociolinguistic and strategic competencies require familiarity with the cultural context of the new language, which includes such aspects as family structures, life cycles, roles in interpersonal relationships, discipline, time/space, and religion (Banks, 2006; Bennett, 2002; Damen, 1987), expressed through politeness, direct and indirect acts, and acceptable norms. Since these aspects of culture vary across ethnic groups, developing socio-linguistic competencies appropriate throughout the United States, for example, requires familiarity with diverse cultures.

Exposure to multicultural literature empowers language learners by providing knowledge about diverse cultures as well as enhancing cultural competencies in both the mainstream and minority cultures and promoting positive attitudes about diverse cultures and languages. This exposure can assist students in their language acquisition, while providing a venue for minority students, regardless of their native countries, to relate to minority and migration issues within their own home country (McCallister, 2004; Moll & Gonzalez, 1994).

Evaluation of Books

Successfully promoting the acquisition of a new language through the use of ethnically diverse literature requires careful evaluation and selection of books. The following considerations are important in selecting books (Carpenter, 2000; Lu, 1998; Murray, 1999): 1) the characters should be presented as authentic, diverse people; 2) the roles of characters with diverse backgrounds should not be presented as passive; 3) the plot and setting should be authentic and accurately reflect the engagement of minority groups in society; 4) cultural values should be presented in a nonstereotypical way; 5) dialogue and language should help the reader learn about both mainstream and minority groups; 6) the illustrations and photographs should accurately reveal the culture; and 7) a review of the background of the author and illustrator is helpful, if possible (this is often provided at the end of the book). Table I presents a worksheet that guides the review of children's literature according to the factors cited above.

Additional resources are available to help educators select appropriate multicultural children's literature. Table 2 includes a sample list of quality multicultural literature that is representative of a variety of cultural groups in the United States. Additionally, Norton (2004) provides a guide to assist teachers in evaluating and selecting high-quality multicultural children's literature, along with annotated bibliographies. Furthermore, online resources can be especially accessible and useful. Some examples include the New Horizons for Learning Web site (which provides online teaching strategies for multicultural education) and the International Children's Digital Library Web site (which provides free, online access to children's literature from many countries). (See References.)

Activities

Making a commitment to using ethnically diverse children's literature to promote language acquisition can be reflected by selecting books and facilitating activities with students. Here, we present some activities that show glimpses into the richness of possibilities.

Activity #1. The first activity incorporates the book The Paper Crane (Japanese culture; Bang, 1986). In this book, an enigmatic old man dines at a restaurant that is struggling to stay in business. In return for his dinner, he offers a paper crane. The crane begins to magically dance after the old man leaves, thus attracting new customers.

After reading the book, children can follow steps to make a paper crane (www.monkey.org/~aidan/ origami/crane/). When finished, students can use an adjective to describe their crane. Next, children can use an emotional adjective to express their feelings as they hold the crane. These activities can nurture linguistic proficiency in children as they follow verbal directions, supported by visual representations of each step, and verbalize their feelings and emotions.

Activity #2. The next activity involves the book Tanili: An Afrocuban Folktale (Retana, 2003). The plot illustrates how a woman and her grandson call neighbors to help them with the cotton harvest, using a magical song of a lizard. Antonio, a rich man in town who refused earlier to help them, cannot resist the song and call to help.

Word maps can be used to enhance students' understanding of the relationships between words or concepts from this book. Structures for these maps can be found online (see References). Such maps might include words that are connected to the same topic or concept, or provide various definitions, including in different languages, of the selected concepts. Such maps can help to enhance the depth and breadth of students' understanding in both a new language and their native one.

Activity #3. The third set of activities revolves around My Name Is Bilal (Mobin-Uddin, 2005). In this book, Bilal and his sister, Ayesha, are the only Muslim students in their new school. This story depicts Bilal's journey of finding his own identity while he and his sister help the others understand that being born in the United States means having the right to have different customs and beliefs.

The following activities, geared especially toward meeting the needs of lower intermediate English language learners, can facilitate cultural understanding while developing language proficiency: 1) While reading a segment, students may underline expressions and sentences that describe Muslim traditions and customs. 2) Then, students can be engaged in a discussion about the ways in which Muslim traditions and customs may differ from those of the non-Muslim students. 3) Using the text and illustrations, students may compare and contrast information about school life with that of their home countries. 4) Students may role-play scenes at the bus stop, in class, at the lockers, and at the basketball courts. The students should be encouraged to incorporate the expressions from the book in their dialogues.

Activity #4. The fourth set of activities involves poetry, using the book Laughing Tomatoes and Other Spring Poems (Jitomates risuenos y otros poemas de primavera; Alarcon, 1997). This bookincludes 17 poems, in both Spanish and English, which revolve around the theme of spring and are accompanied by engaging, brilliantly colored illustrations.

Poems can be used as a format for students writing in English. Providing a structure for poetry writing can enhance students' knowledge of the parts of speech, give them experience with the beauty of the new language, and build self-confidence as they see their words in a new language become poetry. Poetry structures can be scaffolded to provide more or less contextual support for language by removing or including more of the original poetry structure. Some suggested poetry structures are provided in Table 3, although many more are possible.

Final Thoughts

Acquisition of a new language (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) can be supported with the use of ethnically diverse literature. Learning language through such authentic literature can strengthen students' grammatical as well as socio-linguistic and strategic competencies (Yule, 2006) by providing insight into diverse cultures. Additionally, ethnically diverse literature may provide a venue through which some students can relate to diversity and migration issues from their home countries. However, careful evaluation and selection of ethnically diverse literature, to ensure authentic and accurate representations of diverse groups, is an essential part of incorporating its use in the classroom. Ethnically diverse literature lends itself to a richness of possible activities in which to engage students and promote their language acquisition.

References and Resources

Alarcon, F. X. (1997). Laughing tomatoes and other spring poems (Jitomates risuenos y otros poemas de primavera). San Francisco: Children's Book Press. Illustrated by M. C. Gonzalez.

Bang, M. (1986). The paper crane. New York: HarperCollins Children's Books.

Banks, J. (2006). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching. Boston: Pearson Education.

Bennett, C. I. (2002). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Carpenter, L. M. (2000). Multiethnic children's literature: Its need for a permanent place in the children's literary canon. (Report NO. CS 217 099). La Mirada, CA: Biola University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED441240)

Chaika, E. (1994). Language: The social mirror (3rd ed.). New York: Newbury House Publishers.

Damen, L. (1987). Culture learning: The fifth dimension in the language classroom. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Dysart, A. (n.d.). How to make an origami crane. Retrieved August 21, 2006, from www.monkey. org/~aidan/origami/crane/

International Children's Digital Library. (n.d.). A project from the University of Maryland Human- Computer Interaction Lab. Retrieved August 21, 2006, from www.icdlbooks. org/ (Also accessible from www. acei.org).

Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.

Lu, M. (1998). Multicultural children's literature in the elementary classrooms. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED423552.

McCallister, C. (2004). Schooling and the possible self. Curriculum Inquiry, 34(4), 425-461.

Mobin-Uddin, A. (2005). My name is Bilal. Honesdale, PA: Boyds Mills Press. Illustrated by B. Kiwak.

Moll, L., & Gonzalez, N. (1994). Lessons from research with language-minority children. Journal of Reading Behavior, 26(4), 439-456.

Murray, Y. I. (1999). Promoting reading among Mexican American children. Charleston, WV: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED438150.

National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational Programs. (2005). FAQ No. 8: How has the English language learner (ELL) population changed in recent years? Retrieved on June 16, 2006, from www.ncela.gwu.edu/expert/ faq/081eps.htm.

New Horizons for Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved August 21, 2006, from www.newhorizons.org/strategies/ multicultural/front_multicultural. htm

Norton, D. (2004). Multicultural children's literature: Through the eyes of many children. New York: Prentice Hall.

Retana, M. L. (2003). Tanili: An Afrocuban folktale. Bisbee, AZ: High Desert Productions. Illustrated by M. Hanson.

Semantic Word Map. (n.d.). Retrieved August 21, 2006, from http://chs. smuhsd.org / learning_com munity/content_literacy/semantic_ word_map.html.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2003 December). Foreign-born population: 2000. Census 2000 brief. Written by N. Malone, K. F. Baluja, J. M. Costanzo, C. J. Davis. Retrieved June 24, 2006, from www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/ c2kbr-34.pdf.

Vocabulary Word Maps. (n.d.). Retrieved August 21, 2006, from www. thursdaysclassroom.com/10feb00/ teach2.html.

Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Table 1
Selecting Culturally Responsive Literature

Title  Characters  Plot and      Narrative  Literature   Illustrations
of     are         setting are   is         does not     and
Book   authentic   authentic,    genuine,   present      photographs
       people      representing  dialogue   stereotypes  are truly
                   historical    and                     representative
                   and           language                of the culture
                   contemporary  provide                 being studied
                   factors       insight
                                 to
                                 culture

Table 2

A Sample of Quality Multicultural Literature Representative
of a Variety of Cultural Groups in the United States

Best, C. (1999). Three cheers for Catherine the great. New York: DK
Publishing, Inc. Illustrator G. Potter.

Cherry, L. (1990). The great kapok tree. San Diego, CA: Voyager Books
(Also in Spanish)

Couric, K. (2000). The brand new kid. New York: Doubleday. Illustrated
by M. Priceman.

Deborah, H. (1993). Sweet Clara and the freedom quilt. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf.

Haskins, F. (1992). Things I like about Grandma. San Francisco:
Children's Book Press.

Martin, B., Jr., & Archambault, J. (1987). Knots on a counting rope.
New York: Henry Holt and Company.

Martin, R. (1992). The rough-face girl. New York: Scholastic.
Illustrated by D. Shannon.

Robert, A. (2003). Finders keepers? Columbus, GA: Atman Press.

Rodriguez, L.J. (1999). It doesn't have to be this way: A barrio story
(No tiene que ser asi: Una historia del barrio).

San Francisco: Children's Book Press.

Shihab Nye, N. (1994). Sitti's secrets. New York: Four Winds Press.
Illustrated by N. Carpenter.

Werner, H., Yatiyawi Studios. (1999). I'm Jose and I'm okay. New
York: Kane/Miller Book Publishers.

Table 3

Poetry Structures (Adapted from Alarcon, 1997.)

Roots (p. 5)

I carry
my roots
with me
all the time

-- (adjective)

I use them
as -- (noun).

Tortilla (p. 16) (Create a title using a food special to
your culture.)

-- (Title)

Each -- (noun; name of food)
is a tasty

-- (descriptive noun)
for -- (name of a person or thing
to whom you'd like to give a gift)

Debra Giambo is Associate Professor, Maria Elizabeth GOnzales is Assistant Professor, and Tunde Szecsi is Assistant Professor, College of Education, Florida Gulf Coast University, Fort Myers. Vidya Thirumurthy is Assistant Professor, School of Education, Pacific Lutheran University, Tacoma, Washington.