Beliefs about language learning: Indonesian learners' perspectives, and some implications for classroom practices.

Language learners hold a set of beliefs concerning language learning and these beliefs may influence the ways they learn, even though the beliefs are not always explicitly stated. This paper, part of the researcher's on-going research project, investigates the beliefs held by three Indonesian learners undertaking an English course in an English language centre at an Australian university. Data were gathered through questionnaire and interview. The findings reveal that the learners indeed held preconceived ideas about how English should best be learnt. Despite some misconceptions, learners' beliefs were on the whole realistic. The paper aims to sensitise teachers in the English as a foreign language and in second language environments to the types of beliefs learners may hold, and to the possible consequences of these beliefs for second or foreign language learning and instruction.

Introduction

Success in language acquisition is influenced by many interrelated factors. Some factors are associated with the social context of the learning, cultural beliefs about language learning, the status of the target language and the process of language learning itself (Ramirez, 1995). Nunan and Lamb (1996, p. 215) point out that the learners' attitudes towards the target language, the learning situation, and the roles that they are expected to play within that learning situation exert significant influences on the language learning process. Learner characteristics such as personality traits, learning style, learning strategies and attitudes have also been identified as significant aspects which play a role in determining learning outcomes (Ramirez, 1995). The term `attitude', the central focus of this paper, refers to `a set of beliefs that a learner holds about the community and people who speak the target language, about the language, and the learning task itself (Ramirez, 1995, p. 165).

Language learners possess a set of beliefs about the nature of language learning, which Hosenfeld (cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 477) defines as `mini theories' of second language learning. This is supported by Wenden (1986) and Horwitz (1987) who argue that language learners indeed hold some beliefs about language learning, even though they may not always be explicit or consciously thought about. Here a belief is defined as a statement that is held to be true, that affects language learning practices. Learners' belief systems cover a number of aspects, including beliefs about the nature of English, the speaker of English, the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), teaching activities, language learning, appropriate classroom behaviour, their own ability and about the goals for language learning (Richards & Lockhart, 1996).

A substantial amount of research has shown the potential of understanding learners' belief systems. Knowledge of students' beliefs provides teachers with better understanding of their students' expectation of, commitment to, success in, and satisfaction with their language classes (Horwitz, 1988, p. 283). It is probable that language learners have been exposed to common and, in some cases, erroneous beliefs about language learning. It is the purpose of this paper to explore these issues.

The study reported here is part of the researcher's on-going research project. The case study research examined learners' patterns of communication strategies. These patterns were analysed in relation to learners' beliefs about language learning, their prior language learning experience and their cultural background. The extent to which their beliefs were manifested in their communication behaviour was also elaborated. This study was conducted using a number of methods: by administering a questionnaire (one part questionaire on learners' backgrounds and one part questionaire on beliefs about language learning), by conducting an interview about learners' explicit beliefs, by video-recording a dyadic conversation between learners and native speakers, and by transcribing the conversation. This paper examines only part of the full research project and focuses on the investigation of learners' beliefs about language learning. This aspect is examined in relation to learners' prior language learning experiences. The study was undertaken within the context of young adult Indonesian learners learning English in Australia. Special attention was paid to the investigation of learners' beliefs about aspects of learning to communicate orally. In total, twelve learners were included in the study. The data used in this paper were drawn from three of these learners.

Beliefs about language learning

Influence of beliefs on language learning

Learners' beliefs have been found to have an impact on a range of issues. Wenden (1986, p. 4) claims that learners' belief systems can influence their approach to learning in terms of:

* the kind of strategies they use;

* what they attend to;

* the criteria they use to evaluate the effectiveness of learning activities and of the social context that gives them the opportunity to use or practise the language, and

* where they concentrate their use of strategies

Beliefs can influence learners' motivation to learn, their expectations about language learning, their perceptions about what is easy or difficult about a language, and the strategies they choose in learning (Richards & Lockhart, 1994, p. 52). Learners may have different goals for language learning. Some learners learn a language for the purpose of communicating with speakers of that language. The main goal for others may be to become proficient writers. Learners also show different perceptions of what is considered easy and difficult in language learning. Some may consider grammar as the most difficult task. With regard to learning strategies, learners are found to perform different strategies because they may have different expectations about language learning.

Growing evidence also suggests that learners' beliefs not only influence their approaches to language learning and acquisition but also affect the way they respond to teaching activities. Learners feel discontented and offer resistance if the teaching methods in which they are engaged differ from what they believed those teaching methods should be (Horwitz, 1987). According to Horwitz, some students prefer to have more free conversation rather than pattern drills. Some other students insist on their teacher's correction. If language classes fail to meet these kinds of expectations, students may end up being frustrated. This situation can in some ways hinder learners' progress in language learning. `When language classes fail to meet student expectations, students can lose confidence in the instructional approach and their ultimate achievement can be limited' (Horwitz, 1987, p. 119).

According to Cotterall (1995) learners' beliefs are also important particularly in planning for autonomy. She defines autonomy as `the extent to which learners demonstrate the ability to use a set of tactics for taking control of their learning' (p. 195). On the assumption that all behaviour is governed by beliefs and experience, Cotterall argues that autonomous language learning behaviour may also be supported by a particular set of beliefs or behaviours. Thus the beliefs held by learners may either contribute to or impede the development of learners' potential for autonomy. It is clear that the study of learners' beliefs is very important for pedagogy which helps learners to construct a good understanding of their language learning processes.

Misconceptions

Some students may have been exposed to erroneous beliefs about language learning. They may bring these misconceptions with them, when entering their first language class. Horwitz (1988) reports that learners in the foreign language classroom indeed hold beliefs which are inconsistent with the principles underlying teaching materials and activities. The majority of the students in her studies still believe that if they make mistakes at the beginning stage, it will be difficult to get rid of them later on. For example, even though a great number of the students disagreed with the statement `you shouldn't say anything in the language until you can say it correctly', some students thought that it was important to speak with an excellent accent.

There is a need to eliminate these erroneous or conflicting beliefs about language learning because as Horwitz (1987) points out, `erroneous beliefs about language learning lead to a less effective language learning strategy' (p. 126). If learners believe that errors in their second language production will impede their language learning progress, the learners may then refuse to engage in communicative activities, thus hindering their communicative competence. It is therefore essential for language teachers to help shape their students' beliefs towards the achievement of success in language learning. This is of course a very challenging task for language teachers. Oxford and Shearin (1994) assert that `teachers can inculcate the belief that success is not only possible but probable, as long as there is a high level of effort' (p. 24).

By identifying erroneous beliefs and by guiding students in the language classroom, student frustration can be alleviated. Investigating what learners believe about language learning is `a process of (self-) discovery which involves the learners themselves as much as the teacher' (Tudor, 1996, p. 52). It enables the learners to develop `a critical and informed awareness of learning options' (Wenden, 1986, p. 199).

The source of learners' beliefs

Learners' beliefs are derived from a variety of sources. The learner's previous learning experience is one of the sources. According to Little, Singleton, and Silvius (1984) learners' past experiences either in education, or in language learning in particular, play a major role in shaping the learners' attitudes to language learning. Certain personality traits may also generate learners' beliefs (Ellis, 1994). Tudor (1996, p. 53) states that learners' beliefs and expectations may result from not only their previous learning experiences, and certain personality traits, but also from `the unthinking acceptance of popular wisdom'.

Teaching and learning practices may also influence the way in which learners perceive language learning. Language teachers should therefore bear in mind that what they do in the language classroom--for example, the linguistic input and the learning activities the teachers choose--might influence the development of the students' beliefs about learning in general and language learning in particular (Mori, 1999).

According to Spolsky (1988, p. 51) learners' beliefs are rooted in the social context of language learning which includes the sociolinguistic environment of home and community, and the perceptions of the value of the target language. Since social context constitutes one of the necessary conditions for second language acquisition, it is assumed that the learner's beliefs play a significant role in a theory of second language acquisition. Spolsky's study reveals that even though its influence was not as forceful as previous experience or preferred style, cultural background indeed contributes to the belief systems of foreign language learners. Since learner's beliefs are influenced by the social context of second language learning, learners from different cultural backgrounds hold different belief systems (Tumposky, 1991).

In sum, learners' belief systems actually work as `a sort of logic, determining--consciously or unconsciously--what they [do] to help themselves learn English' (Wenden, 1986, p. 4). Thus the study of learners' beliefs constitutes an important area of inquiry (Ellis, 1994). It particularly helps to predict those beliefs of learners that are inconsistent with principles underlying communicative language teaching (CLT), an approach commonly employed by English language teachers, which highlights the importance of using the language for communication rather than focusing on `correct' usage for its own sake (Horwitz, 1990). Such conflicts might result in frustration, anxiety, and lack of motivation in language learning. Differences between the learners' beliefs and those of the teachers may contribute to learners' lack of self-confidence and satisfaction with the language class. Horwitz (1990) reports:

   Many teachers using a communicative approach have encountered
   students who complain if their every mistake is not corrected,
   or if the teacher requires them to say something they have not
   practised. At the same time, students who value the communication
   of meaning over grammatical accuracy may bristle when their
   utterances are corrected consistently. This sort of clash of
   expectations between students and teachers about language learning
   can lead to a lack of student confidence and satisfaction with the
   language class. (pp. 24-25)

Since CLT approaches are popular in both English as a second language (ESL) settings and English as a foreign language (EFL) curricula, identifying beliefs and potential differences in beliefs is important for teachers.

Beliefs about communication strategies

A number of writers have examined learners' belief systems in relation to communication strategies. Grotjahn (1991) contends that learners' beliefs about language learning influence their choice of particular linguistic information, their communication strategies and their second language use. Communication strategies have been defined as strategies language learners use in order to compensate for communication problems and to enhance the effectiveness of communication (Canale, 1983). The taxonomy of communication strategies varies across researchers, depending on how they define them. That of Celce-Murcia, Dornyei, and Thurrell (1995) consists of five main categories:

1 avoidance strategies (e.g. message replacement, topic avoidance, message abandonment);

2 achievement strategies (e.g. circumlocution, paraphrase, gesture, etc.);

3 stalling strategies (e.g. fillers, repetition);

4 self-monitoring strategies (e.g. repairing); and

5 interactional strategies (e.g. appeal for help, request for confirmation, etc.).

A study by Wenden (1987) reports that learners who subscribe to language use highlight the importance of communicative use or function of language rather than the form. These learners regard communicating the meaning as more important than the grammar. They favour the use of communication strategies such as using explanation and activating a number of contextual clues to negotiate meaning. Meanwhile learners who focus on learning about the language or language usage pay a great deal of attention to the forms of the language. These learners rely heavily on cognitive strategies such as using a dictionary, making notes and practising specific habits to improve their language learning.

Some students' beliefs are found to be unrealistic (Horwitz, 1988). For example, some students view errors as harmful and believe that errors should be corrected immediately. In real classrooms, in fact, errors are permitted because they constitute part of the learning process particularly for communication purposes. Yet many students disagree with the idea of guessing in the face of language difficulties.

Method

The participants selected for this study were three learners between 19 to 25 years of age from Indonesia, a country in which English is learnt as a foreign language. English is not used as a medium of instruction or used in everyday conversation but only serves as one compulsory subject in school curricula. These learners, two males and one female, came from different parts of regions in Indonesia and had just finished their schooling in their home country. They had been in Australia for approximately four months at the time of the study. They were undertaking an English course in an English language centre at an Australian university. These learners, upon completing their language course, aimed to continue to an undergraduate course in the same university.

Data for this part of the study were gathered by administering a questionnaire and by conducting an interview. The questionnaire consists of two parts: a background questionnaire and a questionnaire on belies about language learning. The background questionnaire was designed to collect information about learners themselves and about their language learning experience.

A modified version of Horwitz's (1988) `Belies about language learning inventory' (BALLI) was used to assess the learners' opinions on a variety of issues and controversies concerning language learning. The BALLI is used as a research instrument to assess the beliefs of students about language learning in five categories: (a) foreign language aptitude; (b) difficulty of language learning; (c) the nature of language learning; (d) learning and communication strategies; (e) motivation and expectation.

The modified inventory covers three areas:

1 Beliefs about the nature of English language learning This category covers an array of issues related to the nature of language learning: Is it necessary to know a foreign culture in order to speak a foreign language? Is it better to learn a foreign language in a foreign country? How important is it to learn grammar rules?

2 Beliefs about learning strategies The items in this category examine the process of learning a language: How important is it to repeat and practise a lot? Is it important to memorise a large vocabulary? Is it important to transfer from the native language when speaking in the target language?

3 Beliefs about communication strategies This aspect is related to the practice of spontaneous communication: Is it all right to guess if we don't know a word in a foreign language? Is it all right to use paraphrase if we don't know the word in English?

The reason for the modification is to suit the purpose of the present study, which is the investigation of English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' language learning in general and their communication strategy patterns in particular. The first area corresponds to the (c) category (the nature of language learning) in Horwitz's inventory and has been made specific to learning English. The second and the third areas correspond to the (d) category (learning and communication strategies) in Horwitz's inventory, which has been split up into two separate groups of questions. For this study, Horwitz's specification of learning strategies has been modified and expanded, and includes items related directly to learners' actual language learning and practices. Horwitz's specification of communication strategies has also been expanded, to include additional items that will help to identify the beliefs held by learners regarding the strategies they employ in actual communication.

After the questionnaire was completed, each learner was interviewed separately. The interviews aimed to find out the learners' explicit beliefs about their approach to language learning.

Findings

The three learners' responses to the questionnaire were summarised. They were analysed quantitatively in the light of the existing theory and their previous learning experience. Horwitz (1987) points out that there are no precise right and wrong answers to such a questionnaire. Here the responses to the questionnaire were used to generate a discussion of the potential impact of learners' beliefs on language learning strategies in general, and communication in particular. The questionnaire covered three major aspects of learners' beliefs about language learning: beliefs about the nature of English language learning (questions 1 to 10), about learning strategies (questions 11 to 22), and about communication strategies (questions 23 to 34).

Table 1 summarises the three learners' responses. Each learner in this table and in the discussion is referred to by the initial of his or her pseudonym. The pseudonym of these students are Hana (H), Dika (D), and Ody (O).

Beliefs about the nature of English language learning

The first section of the questionnaire covers a broad range of issues related to the nature of English language learning (questions 1 to 10). With the exception of two items, for the most part, the three Indonesian learners agreed in their responses. The three learners strongly believed that the environment in which language is learnt and taught was highly facilitative of second language learning. They strongly agreed that it is best to learn English in English-speaking countries because learners will benefit from the opportunities and the input the English-speaking countries provide. These kinds of opportunities are very rare when learning English in the home country. In the interview, Dika stated that the best way to learn English is to study English in an English-speaking country. Hana revealed that she did not have enough opportunities to use the language in the classroom or outside the classroom in her country. This was because much emphasis was placed on the learning of grammar rules rather than on communicative activities. She stated: `In my country I don't have any chance I mean maybe a little, to talk in English, but here I can talk in English and I feel that this is very useful'. Through the interview she revealed that, during her stay in Australia, she had a great number of opportunities to use English.

With regard to the role of grammar in language learning, Hana reported that she neither agreed nor disagreed that the most important part of learning English is learning the grammar. Initially she was a little concerned about grammatical correctness when speaking in English: `I think I have problem with grammar when I want to speak with somebody, because I have to think about the tenses, is that right or not'. But it appeared that her concern about grammatical correctness gradually changed as she developed a better understanding of the nature of English language learning. When she answered the question of whether she is nervous or not when speaking with native speakers of English, she commented: `First time maybe ya maybe I speak wrong tense now it's not a big problem for me any more. I don't care because I am learning that's alright'.

Apparently, Hana was aware that, although grammar constitutes a basic part of learning a language, it does not necessarily hinder someone with insufficient knowledge of grammar from communicating in the language. Even though much emphasis had been placed on the learning of grammar rules at school, as the three learners revealed, Dika still found it difficult to understand. According to Dika, this was due to the fact that rules for English grammar are completely different from those of his first language.

Dika and Ody were aware that learning English is not just a matter of learning vocabulary items nor is it simply translation from the native language. Both Hana and Dika considered speaking as equal to writing and reading, in terms of their level of difficulty. Most importantly, all learners were positive that they would ultimately be able to speak English.

Beliefs about learning strategies

The questions in this second category are concerned with the process of learning a language. Hana, Dika, and Ody showed a strong preference for repeating and practising a lot in language learning. Hana regarded this as an important aspect in achieving success in language learning, as she revealed in the interview. Practice, as she pointed out, should be not only in speaking but also in such skills as listening, reading and writing. Reading from magazines and newspapers, or even listening to music, was the kind of practice that she considered helpful to achieve success in language learning.

Ody and Dika revealed that they enjoyed practising English with native speakers and always looked out for occasions to practise their English. Dika reported: `I live in Jokya, Jokya is a tourism city so sometimes if I meet tourist I try to speak English with them'. All learners feel the need for more opportunities to use the language not only in the classroom but also in real contexts outside the classroom.

Beliefs about communication strategies

The third category, that of communication strategies, is directly related to actual language learning practice. The responses to the questionnaire showed that the three learners employed a number of strategies to communicate their messages. Hana, Ody, and Dika felt very confident when speaking in English, as they demonstrated in their disagreement with the statement `I feel timid speaking English with other people'. Ody did not feel nervous at all when speaking in English except when giving a presentation in front of the class. Dika felt nervous only in certain aspects. He revealed: `Sometimes I feel nervous. I feel nervous sometimes. I am afraid if I can't understand what he or she said and then I will answer in the wrong answer, I am not sure what they said'. To deal with difficult words Ody said: `I don't use that word I usually erm mention it another way but still in English but not that word. I use paraphrase'. Hana seemed to welcome error correction and did not view this as an obstruction. When asked what was a good way to practise speaking, she talked about `meeting a lot of people and especially the native speakers because they will correct you if you make mistakes'.

Hana, Dika, and Ody disagreed with item 33 (if I don't know a word in English while conversing, I just move to another topic) and item 34 (if I am not sure I have understood what is being discussed, I shift to another topic). These responses might reflect their perseverance in trying to communicate or understand the idea. Hana explicitly stated: `When I don't know a word in English I just try my best. I just describe until they understand in many ways'. Dika reported that he would guess and use body language if he had problems explaining a word.

Summary and discussion

Individual and group opinion may not always be the same. Consequently the learners' responses, as can be seen from the tables above, vary slightly between the individuals. There are particular aspects the learners agree on and there are also a few aspects where they disagree. Some learners' beliefs were realistic and some were unrealistic. The learners' beliefs about the nature of English language learning, learning strategies, and communication strategies, will now be discussed.

Beliefs about the nature of English language learning

Overall, with regard to beliefs about the nature of English language learning, these Indonesian learners of English appeared to have beliefs that conform to what is considered best practice in communicative language teaching models of foreign or second language learning. They were conscious of the importance of the environment and the culture of the target language, while not neglecting the basics of language learning, memorisation of vocabulary and learning of grammar rules. They also indicated an understanding that language and culture are connected to each other. Language is best learnt if the culture of the target language is also explored. The implication for English language teaching is that aspects of culture must be considered in the classroom practice. Importantly the three groups of learners showed a positive view about the nature about English language learning. They believed that ultimately they will be able to speak English well. This positive attitude is very important as a basis for the learners to develop their communicative skills.

The responses from both the questionnaire and the interview indicated that some learners' beliefs were very positive, and some were unrealistic. For instance, there was some support for the belief that learning English is a matter of learning vocabulary and grammar rules (see the responses to questions 3 and 4). As data from their background questionnaire indicated, these beliefs may be rooted in their prior language learning experience which was focused on the learning of grammar rules and vocabularies. Realistically language learning requires more than just learning the vocabulary items and grammar rules; it also requires communicative skills that enable learners to use the language in a real context. This belief may stem from the students' limited knowledge and experience. To a certain extent, it is an erroneous belief, which needs to be eliminated. As Horwitz (1987) argues `erroneous beliefs about language learning lead to less effective language learning strategies' (p. 126).

Learners who believe that learning English involves a great deal of learning of vocabulary and grammar rules may emphasise the importance of learning about the language rather than using the language. These types of learners are much more conscious of language forms and use fewer communication strategies (Wenden, 1987). Learners with this belief may spend most of their time memorising vocabulary items and grammar rules rather than using the language for communication.

Beliefs about language learning strategies

The responses gained from the three Indonesian learners concerning their beliefs about language learning indicate more similarities than differences. With reference to their beliefs about learning strategies, the Indonesian learners are highly aware of the significance of practice in language learning. They all regard practice as an important aspect in language learning. Their own learning experience indicated that they lacked this aspect, particularly for oral practice, either in the classroom or in actual language use outside the classroom.

Apparently all learners, as noticed from their responses to question 13, welcome error correction. They all agreed with the statement, `If beginning students are permitted to make errors in English, it will be difficult for them to speak correctly'. This implies that errors should be corrected on the spot, otherwise learners will continue to make the same errors. In fact, as learners develop their language proficiency, they make fewer errors. There has been argument about whether or not errors should be corrected. The learners in the study seem to have a positive view about error correction. They do not view this as an impediment in language learning. Although it may not always be the same for other students, this positive view about error correction may mean that correction will help develop the learner's self-confidence, and may also indicate learners' communicative intentions.

Beliefs about communication strategies

The purpose of investigating learners' beliefs about communication strategies is to find out whether those learners hold unrealistic beliefs about aspects of speaking. If learners are found to hold erroneous beliefs, these should be worked out immediately by the teacher and the learners themselves. Otherwise learners may not develop oral communicative competence. For example, if a learner is very much concerned with grammatical accuracy, he or she may spend most of his/her time thinking about grammatical forms before he/she can utter something. Such a learner may even refuse to communicate in English at all, either in the classroom or in the actual conversation.

Despite their high concern for grammar, the three Indonesian learners believed that grammar mistakes are part of the learning process, as illustrated in their responses to question 30. Seemingly they all emphasise communicative aspects of language learning, which is beneficial in helping them become socially competent language users.

The majority of the learners disapproved of shifting or abandoning the topic if they did not know the target words. They all revealed that they would explain in many ways in order to get their message across. This reflects their willingness to persevere in trying to communicate their message in the event of language difficulties. It also helps them maintain the conversation.

In sum, the learners' responses on beliefs about communication strategies indicate that the Indonesian learners possess a set of beliefs which conform to what are considered in the literature as the most effective strategies in communication.

Conclusion

The study has described what three Indonesian learners think about English language learning, particularly what strategy they choose in communication. The learners described here have a preconceived idea about how to approach language learning. Most of the learners' beliefs were found to be realistic, but some were unrealistic. These unrealistic beliefs may stem from an array of causes. Some are from learners' previous language learning experience as the present study indicates. Further studies may examine the extent to which learners' cultural background shapes their beliefs about language learning and whether learners' beliefs are manifested in their language learning and communication practices. The findings of the present study indicate that assumptions about students' language learning beliefs can not be made on the basis of homogenised culturally based groupings.

This article aims to sensitise EFL and ESL teachers and other academics to the types of beliefs a learner may hold and to the possible consequences of these beliefs for second or foreign language learning and instruction. Some learners' belies were unrealistic and these should be eliminated, as `erroneous beliefs about language learning lead to less effective language learning strategies' (Horwitz, 1987, p. 126). It is the task of language teachers to deal with these misconceptions to enhance effective use of learning and communication strategies, thus helping them with their conversational skills. Such skills, as pointed out by Yang (1993), will contribute to students' continuing motivation to learn a second language. In addition, by reflecting on learners' beliefs, language teachers will be able to foster change in each individual and prepare the learners to become better language users.

Identifying learners' beliefs is of particular importance, for example, in those language classrooms where the native teachers have students from different cultural backgrounds. Individual as well as culturally based differences in the belies about language learning may emerge. Therefore, to improve the effectiveness of English language teaching and to help students become better learners, it is important to understand students' belief systems.

The article has reported what these Indonesian learners think about how to approach language learning. It must be interpreted in the light of its limitations. It has focused only on three Indonesian learners' studying in Australia. The author does not seek to make a generalisation from the findings to all Indonesian learners.

Keywords

communication skills

cultural differences

English (second language)

Indonesian students

learning strategies

second language learning

Table 1 Learners' responses on beliefs about the nature of English
language learning

                                      Strongly
No. Statement                           agree      Agree    Disagree

1   It is necessary to know the                    H D O
    culture
    of English-speaking countries in
    order to speak English.
2   It is better to learn English in    H D O
    an English-speaking country.
3   Learning English is mostly a                     H         D O
    matter of learning a lot of new
    vocabulary items.
4   The most important part of                      D O
    learning English is learning the
    grammar.
5   Learning a foreign language is                 H D O
    different from learning other
    school subjects.
6   The most important part of                                 D O
    learning English is learning how
    to translate from my native
    language.
7   I believe that I will ultimately               H D O
    learn to speak English very
    well.
8   It is easier to speak than            O          H          D
    understand English.
9   It is easier to read and write                   O         H D
    English
    than to speak and understand it.
10  I believe everyone can learn to       D         H O
    speak English.

                                                  Neither
                                      Strongly   agree nor
No. Statement                         disagree   disagree

1   It is necessary to know the
    culture
    of English-speaking countries in
    order to speak English.
2   It is better to learn English in
    an English-speaking country.
3   Learning English is mostly a
    matter of learning a lot of new
    vocabulary items.
4   The most important part of                       H
    learning English is learning the
    grammar.
5   Learning a foreign language is
    different from learning other
    school subjects.
6   The most important part of                       H
    learning English is learning how
    to translate from my native
    language.
7   I believe that I will ultimately
    learn to speak English very
    well.
8   It is easier to speak than
    understand English.
9   It is easier to read and write
    English
    than to speak and understand it.
10  I believe everyone can learn to
    speak English.

Table 2 Learners' responses on the beliefs about learning strategies

                                      Strongly
No. Statement                           agree      Agree    Disagree

11  It is important to speak English      O         H D
    with excellent pronunciation.
12  It is important to repeat and       H D O
    practise a lot in English.
13  If beginning students are                      H D O
    permitted to make errors in
    English, it will be difficult
    for them to speak correctly
    later on.
14  It is important to practise with      O         H D
    cassettes and tapes.
15  If I heard some one speaking in                 H O         D
    English, I would go up to them
    so that I could practise my
    English.
16  English language learning             O         H D
    involves a lot of memorisation.
17  I enjoy practising English with      D O         H
    native speakers of English.
18  I always look for occasions to        O         H D
    practise my English.
19  I try to forget my native             O         H D
    language when I speak in
    English.
20  It's alright to guess if you          O         H D
    don't know a word in English.
21  If I can speak English very          D O
    well, I will have many
    opportunities to use it.
22  I enjoy practising English with       D         H O
    Australian people I meet.

                                                  Neither
                                      Strongly   agree nor
No. Statement                         disagree   disagree

11  It is important to speak English
    with excellent pronunciation.
12  It is important to repeat and
    practise a lot in English.
13  If beginning students are
    permitted to make errors in
    English, it will be difficult
    for them to speak correctly
    later on.
14  It is important to practise with
    cassettes and tapes.
15  If I heard some one speaking in
    English, I would go up to them
    so that I could practise my
    English.
16  English language learning
    involves a lot of memorisation.
17  I enjoy practising English with
    native speakers of English.
18  I always look for occasions to
    practise my English.
19  I try to forget my native
    language when I speak in
    English.
20  It's alright to guess if you
    don't know a word in English.
21  If I can speak English very
    well, I will have many
    opportunities to use it.
22  I enjoy practising English with
    Australian people I meet.

Table 3 Learners' responses on communication strategies

                                      Strongly
No. Statement                           agree      Agree    Disagree

23  I feel timid speaking English                             H D O
    with other people.
24  I ask for clarification from my       D         H O
    conversational partners if I
    don't understand what they say.
25  If I don't get the message                                 D O
    conveyed to me by my
    conversational partners, I just
    pretend to understand it.
26  It is better to avoid using my                 H D O
    first language form and
    structure when speaking in
    English.
27  I will check with my                           H D O
    conversational partners whether
    they understand what I say.
28  If I don't know a word in             D         H O
    English, I use paraphrase to
    explain it.
29  I explain in many ways if my
    conversational partners do not        D         H O
    get the message I am trying to
    convey.
30  I am not worried if I make                     H D O
    grammar mistakes in English.
31  If I am not sure how to respond                           H O D
    correctly, I will shift the
    topic being discussed to another
    topic.
32  If I am allowed to make mistakes      O         H D
    in the beginning, it will be
    hard to get rid of them later
    on.
33  If I don't know a word in                                  H D
    English while conversing, I just
    move to another topic.
34  If I am not sure I have
    understood what is being
    discussed, I shift to another
    topic.

                                                  Neither
                                      Strongly   agree nor
No. Statement                         disagree   disagree

23  I feel timid speaking English
    with other people.
24  I ask for clarification from my
    conversational partners if I
    don't understand what they say.
25  If I don't get the message            H
    conveyed to me by my
    conversational partners, I just
    pretend to understand it.
26  It is better to avoid using my
    first language form and
    structure when speaking in
    English.
27  I will check with my
    conversational partners whether
    they understand what I say.
28  If I don't know a word in
    English, I use paraphrase to
    explain it.
29  I explain in many ways if my
    conversational partners do not
    get the message I am trying to
    convey.
30  I am not worried if I make
    grammar mistakes in English.
31  If I am not sure how to respond
    correctly, I will shift the
    topic being discussed to another
    topic.
32  If I am allowed to make mistakes
    in the beginning, it will be
    hard to get rid of them later
    on.
33  If I don't know a word in             O
    English while conversing, I just
    move to another topic.
34  If I am not sure I have              H D         O
    understood what is being
    discussed, I shift to another
    topic.

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Yang, N. (1993). Understanding Chinese students' language beliefs and learning strategy use. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, 27th, Atlanta, GA, April 13-17, 1993. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 371 589)

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Rosemary Viete, Margaret Gearon and the Editor for their invaluable comments and suggestions.

Erlenawati is a doctoral student in the Faculty of Education, PO Box 6, Monash University, Victoria 3800.

E-mail: [e-mail]