Behavioral outcomes of urban college students' alcohol use.Abstract: This study examined drinking patterns and related behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. outcomes among 1,296 urban college students using a cross-sectional survey research design. Univariate univariate adjective Determined, produced, or caused by only one variable analysis, chi-squares and t-tests were used for analysis. Alcohol consumption was significantly influenced by gender, age, race, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , and academic major. Males were more likely than females to have driven a car after drinking, and arts and science majors were significantly more likely than were education and business majors to have attempted suicide. This study offers an opportunity to compare data to other college populations and to provide baseline The horizontal line to which the bottoms of lowercase characters (without descenders) are aligned. See typeface. baseline - released version information for planning educational programs. ********** Empirical data suggest that alcohol is still the number one drug of choice and that a large proportion of college students drink. Drinking among college students has traditionally been a part of the college experience regardless of the legal status of their alcohol consumption (Black, Ausherman, Kandakai, Lam, & Jurjevic, 2004; Wechsler & Kuo, 2003; Engs Hanson, & Diebold, 1997). Of particular concern in much of the literature is the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, drinking-related violence and other behavioral consequences in relation to alcohol consumption, and underage drinking (O'Malley & Johnson, 2002; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Brener, McMahon, Warren, & Douglas, 1999; Engs & Hanson, 1994). To date, approximately 90 percent of college students report consuming alcohol at least once a year (O'Malley & Johnson; Svenson, Jarvis, & Campbell, 1994). Forty to forty-seven percent of these students reportedly engage in binge (heavy episodic episodic sporadic; occurring in episodes. e. falling a paroxymal disorder described in Cavalier King Charles spaniels in which affected dogs, starting at an early age, experience episodes of extensor rigidity, possibly brought on by stress. e. ) drinking as defined for men as five or more drinks in a row on at least one occasion in the past two weeks, and for women as four or more drinks (Helmkamp et al., 2003; Keeling keeling the marking of ewes by the ram when they are mated by the marking on the ewe of paint or chalk from the sternum of the ram. , 2002; Wechsler et al., 2002). The rates of alcohol consumption and related consequences appear to vary based upon a number of factors. For example, researchers have shown that college students who engage in binge drinking binge drinking An early phase of chronic alcoholism, characterized by episodic 'flirtation' with the bottle by binges of drinking to the point of stupor, followed by periods of abstinence; BD is accompanied by alcoholic ketoacidosis–accelerated lipolysis and are two to five times more likely to drive after drinking (Wechsler, Lee, Nelson, & Kuo, 2002). As many as 60% of college students who drink report driving while intoxicated driving while intoxicated n. see driving under the influence. at least once a year and almost 30% report driving drunk three to ten times per year (Thomas (language) Thomas - A language compatible with the language Dylan(TM). Thomas is NOT Dylan(TM). The first public release of a translator to Scheme by Matt Birkholz, Jim Miller, and Ron Weiss, written at Digital Equipment Corporation's Cambridge Research Laboratory runs & Siebold, 1995). College students also are more likely to get in trouble with the law and to get hurt or injured in·jure tr.v. in·jured, in·jur·ing, in·jures 1. To cause physical harm to; hurt. 2. To cause damage to; impair. 3. than are non-drinking college students (Wechsler, Lee, Nelson, & Lee, 2003; Wechsler et al., 2000; Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, et al., 1998; Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000). Ten to 20% of college students who drink are in a pre-alcoholic stage and will potentially experience continued alcohol problems once they leave the college environment (Thomas & Siebold). The reported rate of suicide ideation ideation /ide·a·tion/ (i?de-a´shun) the formation of ideas or images.idea´tional i·de·a·tion n. The formation of ideas or mental images. among college students is higher than the incidence rate in the general population (Barrios Barrios is a name of Hispanic origin. The name may refer to: Persons
The demographic characteristics of students also seem to influence alcohol consumption and related behavioral outcomes. Many studies have shown that more men drink and experience drinking-related problems than do women. (Kapner, 2003; Engs, Hanson, & Diebold, 1997; Engs & Hanson, 1990; Loughlin & Kayson, 1990). Males appear to consume alcohol in greater quantities and more frequently than females (Kapner; Robinson, Gloria, Roth, & Schuetter, 1993). Ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic also appears to be a factor as several studies have indicated that whites consume greater quantities of alcohol than non-whites (Kapner, Engs, Hanson & Diebold; Wechsler, Dowdall, Davenport Davenport, city (1990 pop. 95,333), seat of Scott co., E central Iowa, on the Mississippi River; inc. 1836. Bridges connect it with the Illinois cities of Rock Island and Moline; the three communities and neighboring Bettendorf, Iowa, are known as the Quad Cities. & Castillo, 1995; Schall, Weede, & Maltzman, 1991). Several national studies such as the Harvard School of Public Health The Harvard School of Public Health is (colloquially, HSPH) is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University. Located in Longwood Area of the Boston, Massachusetts neighborhood of Mission Hill, next to Harvard Medical School and Cambridge, Massachusetts, College Alcohol Study (CAS), the Core Institute (CORE), Monitoring the Future Monitoring the Future is an annual survey given to 50,000 8th, 10th and 12th graders in the United States to determine drug use trends and patterns. The survey started in 1975, with 12th graders. It was expanded in 1991 to include 8th and 10th graders as well. (MTF (1) (Modulation Transfer Function) A measurement of monitor sharpness. MTF compares the contrast ratio between alternating black and green lines that are one pixel thick. ), the National College Health Risk Behavior Survey (NCHRBS), and the Student Alcohol Questionnaire (SAQ SAQ Société des Alcools du Québec SAQ Speed, Agility & Quickness (UK based movement training company) SAQ Self Administered Questionnaire SAQ Short Answer Question SAQ Safety Attitudes Questionnaire SAQ Self-Assessment Question ) administered somewhat regularly over the past 30 years have collected data focused on college student drinking patterns and problems. These and other surveys have established different parameters for measuring drinking patterns that have led to slightly different results. Most survey results have suggested that under age students are more likely to be problem drinkers problem drinker Substance abuse A person who meets 2 of the 3 criteria in the last 12 months, for alcoholics. See Alcohol, Binge drinking. Cf Social drinker. compared to legal age drinkers. In one large national study approximately 22% of all students under twenty-one years of age compared to 18% over twenty-one years of age were identified as at risk. Among heavy drinkers, 32% were under aged drinkers compared to 24% of legal aged drinkers (Presley, Meilman, & Lyerla, 1995; Wechsler et al. 1998; Engs, Hanson & Diebold, 1997). Another large study (Wechsler et al., 2000) that examined alcohol and drug use on American College American College is the name of:
v. con·sumed, con·sum·ing, con·sumes v.tr. 1. To take in as food; eat or drink up. See Synonyms at eat. 2. a. more alcohol than their peers at while students at the larger institutions (enrollment of 20,000 or more). Findings from this study for college women were not as consistent, however. Students in the northeast consumed larger quantities of alcohol (5.8 drinks per week) than in other regions of the country and binge drinking was also identified as a problem for this population. Students under legal drinking age The legal drinking age is a limit assigned by governments to restrict the access of children and youth to alcoholic beverages. In most countries the legal age to purchase alcohol is at least 18, but there are notable exceptions. consumed greater quantities of alcohol than those for whom alcohol consumption was legal (Presley, Meilman, & Lyerla, 1995). Historically, urban universities have served a mixture of traditional and non-traditional students Non-traditional student is an American English term referring to students at higher education institutions (undergraduate college or university) who generally fall into two categories: Because much of the data collected in the past focused primarily on traditional residential college and university campuses, there is little information available that discusses the drinking patterns and problems of urban, nontraditional students and how they might differ. This study was designed to answer the following questions: 1) What are urban nontraditional college students' behavioral experiences regarding alcohol use? 2) Do urban nontraditional college students' behavioral experiences differ based upon background and demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, age, race, marital status, classification, major, student and work status)? 3) How do urban college nontraditional students compare to traditional university populations regarding their drinking behavior experiences? METHOD POPULATION AND SAMPLE The population for this study was defined as all students enrolled at a large mid-western urban university. A total of 1,296 students completed and returned the survey. The sample proportions with regard to age, ethnicity, gender, undergraduate/graduate classification, and marital status are consistent with those for the university as a whole. INSTRUMENT The survey tool used was the Student Alcohol Questionnaire (SAQ) developed by Engs (1975). The initial instrument was modified to include an Alcohol Attitude Scale (Engs, 1977) and a series of questions related to the urban experience. A socio-demographic profile was included to collect information about gender, race, age, level of education, professional program, health status, employment status, and distance students resided from campus. The modified instruments were incorporated into one survey tool and formatted to fit on a one-page, double-scaled, legal size, scantron form. Internal reliability for the drinking patterns and drinking problems subscales were .88 and .91, respectively. The twenty-nine items assessing behavioral outcomes were the focus for this analysis. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to assess construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. . A scree plot with subsequent varimax rotation of items indicated that items clustered on five factors. Criterion loadings were set at .30 or above for most items. The following subscales and subsequent factors loadings were identified: seven illegal/self destructive behaviors factors loaded at .50 or higher, seven academic behavioral outcome factors loaded at .40 or higher, eight interpersonal in·ter·per·son·al adj. 1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills. 2. experience factors loaded at .36 or higher, three drinking and driving factors loaded at .68 or higher, and two suicide behavioral factors loaded at .67 or higher. Internal reliability of the subscales measuring behavioral outcomes was calculated on the final sample utilizing Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. . Internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. measures for
illegal/self-destructive behaviors, academic behavioral outcomes,
interpersonal experience, drinking and driving, and suicidal su·i·cid·aladj. 1. Of or relating to suicide. 2. Likely to attempt suicide. behaviors were .86, .79, .82, .84, and .65 respectively. One item (done something you lately regretted) did not distinctly cluster onto any of the five factors and was thus removed from further analysis. RESEARCH DESIGN A cross-sectional survey research design was utilized in this study. Researchers were afforded the opportunity to mail the surveys to the entire student population at no cost to the research project. The survey, cover letter, and business reply envelope were included in a non-essential mailing prepared by the registrar's office and sent to all (15,683) students registered for classes during the semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s . Mail was distributed from the registrar's office and completed alcohol surveys were returned to the principal investigators Noun 1. principal investigator - the scientist in charge of an experiment or research project PI scientist - a person with advanced knowledge of one or more sciences office. Due to financial constraints CONSTRAINTS - A language for solving constraints using value inference. ["CONSTRAINTS: A Language for Expressing Almost-Hierarchical Descriptions", G.J. Sussman et al, Artif Intell 14(1):1-39 (Aug 1980)]. , no follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan or reminder letter was sent. Consent was indicated by return of the survey form. Approval to conduct this study was granted by the university's Institutional Review Board prior to data collection. DATA ANALYSIS Descriptive analysis was used to profile the socio-demographic variables and drinking patterns. Data were tested by univariate analysis, chi-square chi-square (ki´skwar) see under distribution and test. chi-square n. analysis, and cross-tabulation method to assess homogeneity Homogeneity The degree to which items are similar. and to examine the effect of background characteristics. Factor analysis was used to determine which behavioral outcome items form distinct variables and to establish construct validity. SPSS A statistical package from SPSS, Inc., Chicago (www.spss.com) that runs on PCs, most mainframes and minis and is used extensively in marketing research. It provides over 50 statistical processes, including regression analysis, correlation and analysis of variance. (10.1) statistical software was used to analyze the data. RESULTS The majority of college students were female (66%), white (75%), working towards a Bachelor's degree in arts and science (52%), and having "A" or above grades (Table 1). The ages of students ranged from 16 to 83 years (M = 29.4, SD = 10.7) with the majority over the age of 21 (83%), and more than half (58%) over the age of 25. Results of the Chi-square analyses conducted to assess homogeneity in respondent's background characteristics indicated significant differences based upon major, undergraduate/ graduate classification, sex, and marital status. Respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. that identified themselves as arts/science majors were more likely to be married ([chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. ] =15.3 df=6, p=.018) than those in other degree areas. Non-white respondents were more concentrated in business ([chi square]=0.4 df=3, p=. 015) than in other degree areas. Both undergraduate and graduate students were significantly more likely to be female ([chi square]=7076, df=2, p=.021) and graduate students were more likely to be married ([chi square]=83.9, df=4, p=.000) than undergraduate students. Male respondents were more frequently identified as business majors while females were more frequently identified as education majors ([chi square]=57.3, df=3, p=.000). More females ([chi square]=10.64, df=2, p=.005) reported being single, married, or other. Drinking Patterns. Drinking patterns were assessed for students who reported using alcohol. The majority (89%) of students who participated in the study first reported using alcohol before age 21, with 67% reporting consuming alcohol before age 18. More than half of the participants (62%) reported that they consumed an average of less than four drinks per week, while almost a third (31%) reportedly did not travel to get alcohol. The majority of the responders (68%) indicated that they consumed alcohol during the last month, with differences on the three categories of beverages investigated. A total of 904 students reported drinking beer, and the majority of these (87%) drank less than 5 cans at any one time. Eleven percent, 12% and 14% of responders indicated that they consumed more than 5 drinks of liquor liquor /li·quor/ (lik´er) (li´kwor) pl. liquors, liquo´res [L.] 1. a liquid, especially an aqueous solution containing a medicinal substance. 2. , wine or beer respectively at one time (Table 2). Drinking and Driving. Sixty-five percent of the students who reported using alcohol also reported driving a car after drinking (Table 3). Fifty-four percent reported having driven a car when they knew they had too much to drink. Drinking and driving scores differed significantly based on marital status (F=5.14; df=6, 2172; p =.000), gender (F=9.97; df=3, 1089; p =.000), race (F=3.84; df=3, 1088; p = .009), and age (F= 3.41; df=6, 2128; p = .002). Univariate F-tests on individual subscale items found those identified as other (divorced, widowed, separated or living with a partner) and single were more likely than those identified as married to have driven a car after drinking (M=3.52, SD=1.3 and M=3.57, SD=1.5 VS M=4.01, SD=1.0, respectively) and to drink while driving a car (M=4.18, SD=1.23 VS M=4.45, SD=1.06 and M=4.54, SD=.79, respectively). Those identified as other also were more likely than married students to have driven a car when they knew they had too much to drink (M=3.88, SD=1.3 VS M=4.24, SD=.85). The effects of gender, race, and age on drinking and driving behaviors indicated that males were more likely than females to have driven a car after drinking (M=3.39, SD=1.4 VS M=3.85, SD=1.03), driven when they knew they were drunk (M=3.90, SD=1.2 VS M=4.17, SD=1.1) and drive while drinking (M=4.28, SD=1.1 VS M=4.53, SD=.95). White students were more likely than other ethnic groups to have driven a car after drinking (M=3.62, SD=1.4 VS M=3.93, SD=1.33) and to have driven when they knew they had too much to drink (M=4.02, SD=1.1 VS M=4.28, SD=1.1). Those under 21 years of age were less likely to have driven a car after drinking than were those 21-24 years of age and those over 24 years of age (M=4.04, SD=1.4 VS M=3.55, SD=1.5 and M=3.66, SD=1.3, respectively). As well, those under 21-24 years of age were more likely than those under 21 years of age and those over 24 years of age (M=3.55, SD=1.5 VS M=4.04, SD=1.4,and M=3.66, SD=1.3, respectively) to have driven when they knew they had too much to drink. Illegal and Self-destructive Behaviors. Results showed that illegal/self-destructive scores differed significantly based on marital status (F=3.54; df=14, 2128; p =.000), gender (F=6.90; df=7, 1053; p =.000), race (F=3.78; df=7,1037; p = .000), and age (F= 2.18; df=14, 2058; p = .007). Univariate F-tests on individual subscale items found those identified as other (divorced, widowed, separated, or with a partner) were more likely than those identified as single or married to have been arrested for a DWI/DUI (M=4.86, SD=.64 VS M=4.96, SD=.21, respectively), to have lost job due to their drinking (M=4.87, SD=.55 VS M=4.97, SD=.27 and M=4.98, SD=.26, respectively), to have been in trouble with school administration as a result of drinking (M=4.83, SD=.56 VS M=4.95, SD=.30 and M=4.98, SD=.15, respectively), and to have damaged property (M=4.68, SD=.87 VS M=4.83, SD=.57 and M=4.90, SD=.30, respectively). There were no significant differences in illegal/self destructive behaviors between those who self identified as single and those self identified as other or married. Health Issue Concerns. Univariate F-tests on individual subscale items found those identified as other (divorced, widowed, separated, or with a partner) were more likely than those identified as single or married to have contracted a sexually transmitted infection (M=4.75, SD=.78 VS M=4.94, SD=.30 and M=4.97, SD=.18, respectively), and to have sought treatment for an injury (M=4.70, SD=.80 VS M=4.90, SD=.46 and M=4.90, SD=.37, respectively). Results of the analysis showed that males were more likely than females to have had trouble with the law regarding their drinking (M=4.70, SD=.72 VS M=4.88, SD=.44), to have lost a job due to their drinking (M=4.91, SD=.48 VS M=4.98, SD=.23), to have been in trouble with school administration as a result of drinking (M=4.89, SD=.47 VS M=4.96, SD=.26), to have sought treatment for an injury (M=4.79, SD=.65 VS M=4.92, SD=.37), and to have damaged property (M=4.69, SD=.77 VS M=4.90, SD.42). An examination of the effects of race found that white students more likely than nonwhite non·white n. A person who is not white. non  white adj. students to have had trouble with the law
regarding their drinking (M=4.80, SD=.58 VS M=4.92, SD=.48), to have
been in trouble with school administration because of behavior resulting
from drinking (M=4.94, SD=.33 VS M=4.97, SD=.30), to have damaged
property (M=4.81, SD=.58 VS M=4.90, SD=.53), and to have been arrested
for a DWI/DUI (M=4.94, SD=.35 VS M=4.95, SD=.34). Age differences in
engagement in illegal and self-destructive behaviors found that those
under 21 years of age were more likely than those 21- 24 years of age
and those 24 years of age and older to have had trouble with the law
regarding their drinking (M=4.73, SD=.80 VS M=4.84, SD=.46 and M=4.84,
SD=.53 , respectively), while those 24 years of age and older were more
likely to have lost a job due to their drinking than those who were
21-24 years of age (M=4.93, SD=.44 VS and M=4.99, SD=.09).
Suicidal Behavior. Almost 20% of students in this study reported having contemplated suicide. Results showed that scores on the suicide questions differed significantly based on marital status (F=10.38; df=4, 2182; p =.000) and major (F=2.63; df=2, 2090; p =.015). Those identified as other (divorced, widowed, separated or living with a partner) were more likely than those identified as single and married to have thought about suicide (M=4.49, SD=113 VS M=4.65, SD=.87 and M=4.85, SD=.43, respectively). As well, those identified as other were significantly more likely than single students to have attempted suicide (M=4.69, SD=.84 VS M=4.90, SD=.39). Differences in major indicated that arts and science students were significantly more likely than were education majors to have thought about suicide (M=4.62, SD=.91 VS M=4.81, SD=.53). Arts and science majors also were significantly more likely than were education and business majors to have attempted suicide (M=4.85, SD=.52 VS M=4.97, SD=.16 and M=4.93, SD=.35, respectively). DISCUSSION This study examined behavioral experiences regarding alcohol use among urban college students and assessed differences in alcohol-related behaviors among urban, non-traditional university students. Data concerning knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs related to alcohol use and abuse of urban university students also were collected and are presented elsewhere (Black et al., 2004). Drinking Patterns. Prevalence rates of alcohol consumption in this study were lower or similar to rates estimated from several national studies. Approximately 83% of college students in this study reported drinking alcohol in the year prior to the survey, compared to 90% of students as reported by Svenson, Jarvis, & Campbell (1994), and 72% by Engs, Hanson, & Diebold, (1997). In many of the national alcohol studies focusing on traditional university populations, older, more mature students reported drinking more frequently than younger drinkers, however, while younger drinkers reported drinking less frequently, they were much more likely to be binge or heavy episodic drinkers. Of particular interest in this study were the lower prevalence rates of heavy episodic drinking in this population. Approximately 25% of participants reported heavy episodic drinking within the two weeks prior to the survey, in comparison to 40% of students in the MTF study (O'Malley & Johnson, 2002), and 43% of students in the CAS study (Wechsler et al., 1998). A similar comparison can be made for underage heavy episodic drinking experience. While underage participants in this study account for only 17% of the total population, 28% of them reported heavy episodic drinking, in comparison to 45.6% of underage students who participated in the CORE study (Presley, Meilman, & Leichliter, 2002), 40% of the underage students enrolled in the MFT (1) (Master File Table) A list of files in an NTFS volume. It contains the name, size, time and date, etc. for each file. See NTFS and FAT. (2) (Managed File T study, and 42% of underage students who participated in the NCHRBS (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. , 1997). Reasons for the lower reported consumption of alcohol may be related to the urban differences previously mentioned. Older students tend to report more moderate drinking behaviors than their younger counterparts. Younger students also may consume less alcohol and exhibit fewer destructive behaviors related to alcohol use at urban institutions because they predominantly pre·dom·i·nant adj. 1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant. 2. live in off-campus residences, are positively influenced by prevailing social norms and spend more time with the older, more mature students at these institutions. Lower reported consumption of alcohol and related behavioral problems among this population also may be related to the gender and ethnicity of respondents, the campus culture, and their geographic location. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Svenson, Jarvis and Campbell (1994), there also may be selective factors at work. Students with the most severe drinking problems may fail or drop out of university, leaving only those with manageable or moderate behavior patterns still in school through their senior and graduate years. While the rate of alcohol consumption among this sample appears to be lower than that of other studies, the behavioral consequences of urban, nontraditional college students' drinking are still of much concern. Reports of involvement in illegal and self-destructive behaviors occur frequently among this sample. Of particular concern are the drinking and driving experiences and suicidal ideation suicidal ideation Suicidality Psychiatry Mental thoughts and images which hinge around committing suicide. See Suicide. reported within this population. Drinking and Driving. One negative consequence of alcohol consumption is drinking and driving. This study has shown that a significant proportion (65%) of the sample report having driven a car after consuming alcohol and more than half have driven a car when they knew they had too much to drink. National data related to drinking and driving suggest that approximately one-third of traditional residential college students report driving under the influence of alcohol during the last year (Presley et al., 1995; Wechsler et al., 1998). The higher rate of drinking and driving among urban students may be related to their off-campus living arrangements and the reduced availability of alcohol venues. The risk of serious injury and the premature death Premature Death occurs when a living thing dies of a cause other than old age. A premature death can be the result of injury, illness, violence, suicide, poor nutrition (often stemming from low income), starvation, dehydration, or other factors. of self and others cannot go without mention. Alcohol related unintentional injuries unintentional injury Accidental injury Public health Any injury caused by an accident. See Injury. , including motor vehicle crashes accounted for more than 1,400 student deaths in 1998. More than 2 million of the 8 million college students in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. report having driven while under the influence of alcohol and more than 3 million rode with a driver who had consumed alcohol. More than 500,000 college students were unintentionally injured under the influence of alcohol and over 600,000 were hit or assaulted by another student who had been drinking (Hingson, Heeren, Zakocs, Kopstein, & Wechsler, 2002). There is an urgent need for the development and implementation of prevention and treatment programs to reduce alcohol-related harm among urban and traditional college students. Illegal and Self-destructive Behaviors. Consumption of alcohol also results in student arrests and prosecutions for violation of liquor laws liquor laws, legislation designed to restrict, regulate, or totally abolish the manufacture, sale, and use of alcoholic beverages. The passage of liquor laws has been prompted chiefly by the desire to prevent immoderate use of intoxicants, but sometimes also by the , such as the minimum age requirement, open container laws, public intoxication Public intoxication, also known as "drunk and disorderly conduct" (sometimes, incorrectly, as "drunken disorderly"), is a summary offence in many countries. The laws regarding drunkenness vary wildly from one legislative body to the next and are open to a certain amount of , driving while impaired and other campus and community laws and policies. The results of this study are consistent with national data that suggests that from 5% to 12% of students admit to trouble with police or campus authorities as a result of their alcohol use. Student arrests for driving while intoxicated were reported at a rate of 1.7% (2.0% of all drinkers). Eight percent of students admit to damaging property or pulling a fire alarm in connection with drinking with 12% claiming to have sustained property damage due to other students drinking (Wechsler et al., 1998; Engs, Hanson, & Diebold, 1997; Presley et al., 1995). One major concern is that these experiences frequently go without penalty or repercussion. According to the students in this sample, only 10% have ever had trouble with the law regarding their drinking and less than 5% have ever been arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol. Health Issue Concerns. Health related consequences of heavy drinking
Any investments with a maturity of one year or less. short-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss on the value of an asset that has been held less than a specified period of time. effects such as a hangover, nausea nausea, sensation of discomfort, or queasiness, in the stomach. It may be caused by irritation of the stomach by food or drugs, unpleasant odors, overeating, fright, or psychological stress. It is usually relieved by vomiting. or vomiting vomiting, ejection of food and other matter from the stomach through the mouth, often preceded by nausea. The process is initiated by stimulation of the vomiting center of the brain by nerve impulses from the gastrointestinal tract or other part of the body. , to the more risky, dangerous or long-term, such as alcohol poisoning Poisoning Politeness (See COURTESY.) Politeness, Excessive (See COURTESY, EXCESSIVE.) Randall, Lord killed by eating eels poisoned by his sweetheart. [Br. Balladry: Lord Randall] , reduced resistance to illness, unintended and unprotected sexual activity, or suicide. According to Perkins (2002), approximately 25% of students reported engaging in either unintended or unprotected sexual relations sexual relations pl.n. 1. Sexual intercourse. 2. Sexual activity between individuals. at least once as a result of drinking during the previous year, with 15% of males and 10% of females reporting multiple occurrences. The results of this study are consistent with national data that suggests that 5.1% of students and 6.1% of drinkers reported having contemplated suicide, and 1.6% (1.9%) of drinkers revealed that they had actually tried to commit suicide Verb 1. commit suicide - kill oneself; "the terminally ill patient committed suicide" kill - cause to die; put to death, usually intentionally or knowingly; "This man killed several people when he tried to rob a bank"; "The farmer killed a pig for the holidays" within the previous year (Presley, Leichliter, & Meilman, 1999). Nontraditional urban students who indicated their marital status as other (widowed, divorced, living with a partner, or separated) were significantly more likely to have contemplated suicide, and to have attempted suicide. It is possible that these students may be experiencing social stressors for which they have chosen alcohol as a maladaptive Maladaptive Unsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation. Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy coping method. LIMITATIONS There were some limitations to this research that should be noted. The data collected for this study are cross-sectional and may not reflect behaviors or conditions over time. The data were self-reported, therefore, the findings are subject to recall bias and inaccurate reporting of behaviors. The response rate was lower than is generally accepted for academic research, however, there are several issues, which potentially contributed to the lower that expected response rate. First, the survey was included within a registrar's general mailing and not under separate cover. Secondly, no follow-up or reminder letter, post-card, phone call or email was utilized. The survey was comprised of 110 items, therefore, the length of the survey may have been a deterrent de·ter·rent adj. Tending to deter: deterrent weapons. n. 1. Something that deters: a deterrent to theft. 2. to some of the students. Finally, the survey selected for use in this study included some potentially confusing con·fuse v. con·fused, con·fus·ing, con·fus·es v.tr. 1. a. To cause to be unable to think with clarity or act with intelligence or understanding; throw off. b. response options for some of the questions. For most descriptive studies a sample size of between 10 and 20 percent of the sample size is sufficient (Cicciarella (1997). Krejecie & Morgan (1970) suggest that for a population between 15,000 and 20,000 a sample of 375-377 is acceptable. Because college student populations tend to be more homogeneous The same. Contrast with heterogeneous. homogeneous - (Or "homogenous") Of uniform nature, similar in kind. 1. In the context of distributed systems, middleware makes heterogeneous systems appear as a homogeneous entity. For example see: interoperable network. than general adult populations, a smaller sample size can be used. Another point to emphasize is that sample size does not need to be a certain size of the population. When random sampling is employed, a sample size that is only a small percentage of the population can represent the population well (Cicciarella, 1997). This sample proportions with regard to age, ethnicity, gender, classification, and marital status are consistent with those for the university as a whole, therefore, external validity External validity is a form of experimental validity.[1] An experiment is said to possess external validity if the experiment’s results hold across different experimental settings, procedures and participants. of this sample is maintained. Many studies have examined the negative behavioral consequences of student drinking, however, there has been little systematic evaluation. More research focusing on urban student populations and other non-traditional college settings could be useful. Standardization standardization In industry, the development and application of standards that make it possible to manufacture a large volume of interchangeable parts. Standardization may focus on engineering standards, such as properties of materials, fits and tolerances, and drafting of assessment criteria also could be useful to help with comparisons across multiple studies. CONCLUSIONS This study is unique because it examines the behaviors related to alcohol use and the drinking patterns and problems of urban university students. Urban universities have not always acknowledged the alcohol related problems of their student populations because many of the problems occur off-campus. However, the results of this study suggest a need for universities to develop alcohol policies to regulate and manage behaviors that occur on campus, as well as services to meet student needs on campus. This research also can be used as a comparison for other urban and traditional institutions and to contribute to the empirical data currently being collected at a national level. Further research is needed to continue the examination of differences in drinking patterns and problems that exist in nontraditional college settings, particularly urban institutions. REFERENCES Barrios, L.C., Everett, S.A.; Simon, T.R.; & Brener, N.D. (2000). Suicide ideation among US college students. Journal of American College Health, 48, 229-233. Black, J. M., Ausherman, J. A., Kandakai, T. L., Lam, E. T. C., & Jurjevic, S. C. (2004). Urban University Students' Knowledge of Alcohol and Drinking. Journal of Health Studies, 19(2), 91-99. Brener, N.D., McMahon, P. M., Warren, C. W., & Douglas, K.A. (1999). 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(1997). Research in physical education, exercise science, and sport: An introduction. Scottsdale, AZ: Gorsuch Scarisbrick. Cooper, M.L. (2002). Alcohol use and risky sexual behavior among college students and youth: Evaluating the evidence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, 101-117. Crowley, J. E. (1991). Educational status and drinking patterns: How representative are college students? Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 52(1), 10-16. Engs, R. C. (1975). The Student Alcohol Questionnaire. Bloomington, IN: Department of Health and Safety Education, Indiana University Indiana University, main campus at Bloomington; state supported; coeducational; chartered 1820 as a seminary, opened 1824. It became a college in 1828 and a university in 1838. The medical center (run jointly with Purdue Univ. . Engs, R. C. (1977). Drinking patterns and drinking problems of college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 38, 2144-2156. Engs, R. C. (1978). College Students' knowledge of alcohol and drinking. Journal of American College Health Association, 26, 189-193. Engs, R. C., & Hanson, D. J. (1990). Gender differences in drinking patterns and problems among college students: A review of the literature. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 35(1), 36-47. Engs, R. C., Hanson, D. J. & Diebold, B. A. (1997). The drinking patterns and problems of a national sample of college students, 1994. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 41, 13-33. Fisher, B. S., Cullen, F. T., & Turner, M. G. (2000). Sexual victimization victimization Social medicine The abuse of the disenfranchised–eg, those underage, elderly, ♀, mentally retarded, illegal aliens, or other, by coercing them into illegal activities–eg, drug trade, pornography, prostitution. of college women. NCJ NCJ National Criminal Justice NCJ National Contest Journal NCJ New Columbia Joist Co. 182369, Washington Bureau of Justice Statistics Noun 1. Bureau of Justice Statistics - the agency in the Department of Justice that is the primary source of criminal justice statistics for federal and local policy makers BJS , National Institute of Justice, Department of Justice. Hanson, D. J. (1972). Alcohol norms and deviant deviant /de·vi·ant/ (de´ve-int) 1. varying from a determinable standard. 2. a person with characteristics varying from what is considered standard or normal. de·vi·ant adj. drinking behavior. Unpublished dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. , Syracuse University Syracuse University, main campus at Syracuse, N.Y.; coeducational; chartered 1870, opened 1871. Syracuse is noted for its research programs in government and industry; facilities include the Center for Science and Technology, the Newhouse Communications Center, and , Syracuse, New York
Syracuse (IPA: . Helmkamp, J. C., Hungerford, D. W., Williams, J. M., Manley, W. G., Furbee, P. M., Horn, K. A., & Pollock, D. A. (2003). Screening and brief intervention A Brief intervention is a technique, similar to an intervention, to help reduce alcohol misuse. It work in two ways:
Hingson, R. W., Heeren, T., Zakocs, R. C., Kopstein, A., & Wechsler, H. (2002). Magnitude of alcoholrelated mortality and morbidity morbidity /mor·bid·i·ty/ (mor-bid´it-e) 1. a diseased condition or state. 2. the incidence or prevalence of a disease or of all diseases in a population. mor·bid·i·ty n. among U. S. college students ages 18-24. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63(2), 136-144. Kapner, D. A. (2003). Alcohol and other drugs on campus: The scope of the problem. Newton, MA: Education Development Center, Higher Education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention. Keeling, R. P. (2002). Binge drinking and the college environment. Journal of American College Health, 50(5), 197-201. Krejecie, R. V., & Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 608. Loughlin, K. A., & Kayson, W. A. (1990). Alcohol consumption and self-reported drinking-related problem behaviors as related to sex, work environment, and level of education. Psychological Reports, 67, 1323-1328. O'Malley, P. M. & Johnson, L. D. (2002). Epidemiology epidemiology, field of medicine concerned with the study of epidemics, outbreaks of disease that affect large numbers of people. Epidemiologists, using sophisticated statistical analyses, field investigations, and complex laboratory techniques, investigate the cause of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14(suppl.), 23-39. Perkins, H. W. (2002). Surveying the damage: A review of research on consequences of alcohol misuse in college populations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14(suppl.), 91-100. Presley, C. A., Meilman, P. W., & Lyerla, R. (1995). Alcohol and drugs on American college campuses: Use, consequences, and perceptions of the campus environment, Volume II: 1990-1992. Carbondale, Illinois Carbondale is a city in Southern Illinois in the midwest United States, is 96 miles or about two hours south of Saint Louis, Missouri. It is known mainly as the site of the main campus of Southern Illinois University. The city is located in Jackson County, Illinois. : Core Institute, Southern Illinois University Southern Illinois University, main campus at Carbondale; state supported; coeducational; est. 1869, opened 1874 as a normal school, renamed 1947. It has a center for archaeological investigation and a fisheries research laboratory. There is also a campus at Edwardsville. . Presley, C. A., Leichliter, J. S., & Meilman, P. W. (1999). Alcohol and drugs on American college campuses: A Report to College Presidents. Third in a series: 1995, 1996, and 1997. Carbondale, Illinois: Core Institute, Southern Illinois University. Presley, C. A, Meilman, P. W., & Leichliter, J. S. (2002). College factors that influence drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14(suppl.), 82-90. Robinson, S. E., Gloria, A. M., Roth, S. L., & Schuetter, R. M. (1993). Patterns of drug use among female and male undergraduates. Journal of College Student Development Journal of College Student Development is an academic journal founded in 1959 and is the official publication of the American College Personnel Association. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide variety of academic fields related to college , 34(2), 130-137. Schall, M., Weede, T. J., & Maltzman, I. (1991). Predictors of alcohol consumption by university students. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 37(1), 72-80. Svenson, L. W., Jarvis, G. K., & Campbell, R. L. (1994). Gender and age differences in the drinking behaviors of university students. Psychological Reports, 75(1), 395-403. Thomas, R.W. & Seibold, D.R. (1995) Interpersonal and alcohol-related interventions in the college environment. Health Communications, 7(2), 93-123. Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G. W., Davenport, A., & Castillo, S. (1995). Correlates of college student binge drinking. American Journal of Public Health The American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) is a peer reviewed monthly journal of the American Public Health Association (APHA). The Journal also regularly publishes authoritative editorials and commentaries and serves as a forum for the analysis of health policy. , 85(7), 921-926. Wechsler, H., Dowdall, G. Maenner, G. Gledhill-Hoyt, J., & Lee, H. (1998). Changes in binge drinking and related problems among American college students between 1993 and 1997: Results of the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study. Journal of American College Health, 47, 57-68. Wechsler, H., & Kuo, M. (2003). Watering Down the Drinks: The Moderating Effect of College Demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. on Alcohol Use of High-Risk Groups high-risk group Epidemiology A group of people in the community with a higher-than-expected risk for developing a particular disease, which may be defined on a measurable parameter–eg, an inherited genetic defect, physical attribute, lifestyle, habit, . American Journal of Public Health, 93(11), 1929-1933. Wechsler, H., Lee, J. E., Nelson, T. F., & Kuo, M. (2002). Underage college students' drinking behavior, access to alcohol, and the influence of deterrence deterrence Military strategy whereby one power uses the threat of reprisal to preclude an attack from an adversary. The term largely refers to the basic strategy of the nuclear powers and the major alliance systems. policies. Journal of American College Health, 50(5), 223-236. Wechsler, H., Lee, J. E., Nelson, T. F. & Lee, H. (2003). Drinking and Driving Among College Students: The Influence of Alcohol-Control Policies. American Journal of Preventive Medicine preventive medicine, branch of medicine dealing with the prevention of disease and the maintenance of good health practices. Until recently preventive medicine was largely the domain of the U.S. , 25(3), 212-218. Wechsler, H., Lee, JE, Kuo, M, and Lee, H. (2000). College binge drinking in the 1990s--a continuing problem: Results of the Harvard School of Public Health 1999 College Alcohol Study. Journal of American College Health, 48, 199-210. Wechsler, H., Lee, J. E., Kuo, M, Seibring, M, Nelson, T. F., & Lee, H. (2002). Trends in college binge drinking during a period of increased prevention effors: Findings from four Harvard School of Public Health College alcohol study surveys, 1993--2001. Journal of American College Health, 50, 203-217. CHES AREAS Responsibility I--Assessing Needs Competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. A: Obtain health related data about social and cultural environments, growth and development factors, needs, and interests. Competency B: Distinguish between behaviors that foster and those that hinder hin·der 1 v. hin·dered, hin·der·ing, hin·ders v.tr. 1. To be or get in the way of. 2. To obstruct or delay the progress of. v.intr. well-being. Judith Ausherman, Ed.D., CHES, Jill M. Black, Ph.D, and Codruta A. Rafiroiu, M.D., Ph.D. are Associate Professors of Health Education in the Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance at Cleveland State University Cleveland State University, at Cleveland, Ohio; coeducational; founded 1964, incorporating Fenn College (est. 1923). The Cleveland-Marshall School of law was incorporated in 1969. . Tina L. Kandakai, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Health Promotion in the Department of Adult, Counseling, Health, and Vocational Education vocational education, training designed to advance individuals' general proficiency, especially in relation to their present or future occupations. The term does not normally include training for the professions. at Kent State University. Address all correspondence to Judith Ausherman, Ed.D., CHES, Associate Professor of Health Education, Department of Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue For the street in Ontario, California, see . Euclid Avenue is a name applied to streets in many American cities; however, Cleveland, Ohio’s Euclid Avenue received nationwide attention from the 1860s to the 1920s for its beauty and wealth. , Cleveland, Ohio "Cleveland" redirects here. For the Cleveland metropolitan area, see . For other uses, see Cleveland (disambiguation). Cleveland is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the most populous county in the state. 44115. PHONE: 216.687.4884; FAX: 216.687.5410; E-MAIL e-mail: see electronic mail. in full electronic mail Messages and other data exchanged between individuals using computers in a network. : j.ausherman@csuohio.edu.
Table 1. Background Characteristics of Urban College Students.
Item N %
Age
25 and over 715 58
21-24 years 316 25
Under 21 years 207 17
Sex
Female 838 66
Male 431 34
Race/Ethnicity
White 945 75
African American 155 12
Asian 46 4
Hispanic 43 3
Other 48 4
Marital Status
Single (never married) 779 60
Married 345 27
Other 165 13
Work Status
Full-time 578 45
Part-time 539 42
Unemployed 174 13
Residence
Off-campus 1253 97
On-campus 35 3
Student Status
Full-time 677 55
Part-time 564 45
Classification
Undergraduate 723 57
Graduate 443 35
Other 110 9
Degree Area
Arts/Sciences 443 35
Education 262 21
Law 210 17
Earned Grade Level
A- and above 586 46
B- to B+ 505 40
C+ and below 172 13
N = 1296 college students; Data only reflect those responding to these
items
Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages of Drinking Patterns for Liquor,
Beer, and Wine Consumption of Urban College Students.
At What Age Did You First Use Alcohol?
Mean 15.6 (SD = 5.1) Range 31
<=14 years 15-20 years >=21 years
310 (27) 737(65) 83(7)
What Is The Average Number of Drinks You Consume in a Week?
Mean 5.96 (SD = 8.2) Range 79
1 per week 2 per week 3-4 per week 5-10 per week + 10 per week
179(28) 110(17) 113(17) 128(23) 94(15)
How far do you typically travel to get alcohol?
Don't travel 1 Block 2-8 blocks 1-3 Miles 3-10 Miles 11+Miles
393 (33) 114 (9) 242 (20) 240 (20) 144 (12) 73 (6)
Beer
On average, how often do you drink beer?
Every day >=1 per week >= 1 per month < 1 per year > 1 per year
21(2) 276 (31) 217 (24) 184 (20) 206 (23)
What is the average number of beers you have at any one time?
< 1 1-2 3-4 5-6 < 6 pack
174 (20) 410 (47) 175 (20) 77 (9) 43 (5)
Liquor
On average, how often do you usually have a drink of liquor?
Every day >=1 per week >=1 per month < 1 per year > 1per year
3 (<1) 105 (11) 255 (27) 213 (22) 376 (40)
On average, how many drinks do you usually have at any one time?
< 1 1-2 3-4 5-6 > 6
165 (17) 518 (53) 190 (20) 74 (8) 29 (3)
Wine
How often do you usually have wine?
Every day 1 per week 1 per month < 1 per year > 1 per year
12(1) 17(2) 92(10) 220(24) 573(63)
On average, how much wine do you usually drink at one time?
< 1 1-2 3-4 5-6 > 6
257(26) 360 (37) 226 (24) 108 (11) 12 (1)
Data only reflect those responding to the item.
Table 3. Frequency of Behavioral Outcomes to Alcohol Use of Urban
College Students (N=1296).
At lease At least
once this once in
Behavioral Outcome year my life
Legal/Policy Issues
Damaged property, pulled fire alarm etc. 34(3) 96(9)
Had trouble with the law because of drinking 33(3) 108 (8)
Lost a job because of drinking 10(1) 18(2)
Been in trouble with school administration
because of behavior related to drinking 8(1) 41(3)
Arrested for a DWI/DUI 12(1) 39(3)
Drinking and Driving
Driven a car after several drinks 362(32) 376(33)
Driven a car when you knew you had too 230(20) 391(34)
much to drink
Driven a car while drinking 128(11) 240(21)
Health Problems
Seriously thought about suicide 68(6) 148(13)
Seriously tried to commit suicide 20(2) 71(6)
Been exposed to an STD as a result of 13(1) 53(5)
your drinking
Received health care treatment for an injury
because of your drinking 25(2) 67(6)
Has not
happened
Behavioral Outcome to me
Legal/Policy Issues
Damaged property, pulled fire alarm etc. 1006(89)
Had trouble with the law because of drinking 995(88)
Lost a job because of drinking 1109(98)
Been in trouble with school administration
because of behavior related to drinking 1088(96)
Arrested for a DWI/DUI 1087(84)
Drinking and Driving
Driven a car after several drinks 400(35)
Driven a car when you knew you had too 518(46)
much to drink
Driven a car while drinking 766(68)
Health Problems
Seriously thought about suicide 922(81)
Seriously tried to commit suicide 1047(92)
Been exposed to an STD as a result of 1069(94)
your drinking
Received health care treatment for an injury
because of your drinking 1022(92)
Note: Data reflect only those responding to the item.
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