Bat rabies, Texas, 1996-2000.Bats submitted to the Texas Department of Health (1996-2000) were speciated and tested for rabies virus rabies virus n. A rather large, bullet-shaped virus of the genus Lyssavirus that causes rabies. antigen by direct immunofluorescence Immunofluorescence A technique that uses a fluorochrome to indicate the occurrence of a specific antigen-antibody reaction. The fluorochrome labels either an antigen or an antibody. microscopy. Antigenic analysis of rabies rabies (rā`bēz, ră`–) or hydrophobia (hī'drəfō`bēə), acute viral infection of the central nervous system in dogs, foxes, raccoons, skunks, bats, and other animals, and in virus-positive specimens was performed with monoclonal antibodies This is a list of monoclonal antibodies, antibodies which are clones of a single parent cell. When used as medications, the generic names end in -mab (see "Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies"). against the nucleoprotein nucleoprotein Macromolecular complex consisting of a protein linked to a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. The proteins that combine with DNA are generally of characteristic types called histones and protamines. of the virus; a typical or unexpected results were confirmed by genetic analysis of nucleoprotein sequence. ********** Most information on bats as reservoirs for rabies virus (RABV) is obtained from animals submitted by the public to local health departments for rabies testing Rabies testing is a test generally done on animals (predominantly wild animals) when a person has been bitten. Since the 1960's, the standard test for rabies has been Direct fluorescent antibody test (dFA test). . These data are limited by the following factors: 1) most bat submissions are from a few species found around human dwellings and outbuildings; little is known about rabies in the >30 bat species whose habitats are restricted to forest, desert, and mountainous areas (1,2); and 2) few state laboratories identify their bat submissions to species, and fewer still have the resources to collect data on the incidence and prevalence of different antigenic and genetic variants of RABV (RABVV) (3). The Texas Department of Health laboratory receives 600-1,300 bats each year for rabies testing. Approximately 11% of the bats submitted test positive for RABV. All are identified to species, and all RABV-positive specimens are typed with a panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to determine the antigenic variant of rabies. Samples from bat species uncommonly found rabid in Texas or from more common species infected with atypical virus variants are submitted to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. (CDC See Control Data, century date change and Back Orifice. CDC - Control Data Corporation ) for nucleotide sequence analysis. The objectives of this study were to determine the stares of state surveillance for bat-associated rabies at the species level, assess the comparative characteristics of the antigenic and genetic variants of rabies in bats in Texas, and examine the need for bat speciation speciation Formation of new and distinct species, whereby a single evolutionary line splits into two or more genetically independent ones. One of the fundamental processes of evolution, speciation may occur in many ways. and genetic variant determination in assigning uniform variants of RABV. The Study All bats submitted to the Texas Department of Health Rabies Laboratory for RABV testing from 1996 to 2000 (n = 3,989) were used in this study. All bats were either identified upon receipt or frozen and saved for future speciation. A key based on external characteristics of adult bats from The Bats of Texas (4) was used to make initial determinations. Species identifications were confirmed by comparing specimen data with the more detailed descriptions in that book. All bats with uncertain identifications were taken to Bat Conservation In Europe all bat species are protected, and in particular, bats and bat roosts are legally protected from disturbance. It is also illegal to capture or kill bats without a licence and a reason for that action. International for clarification. Bats were shipped to Texas Tech University for species confirmation. Brain tissues from RABV-positive bats were tested by direct immunofluorescence (Centocor, Malvern, PA; Chemicon, Temecula, CA) for their reaction with MAbs against the nucleoprotein of the RABV (5). MAbs were provided by CDC and have been used extensively to identify RABVV (1,6-10). RNA RNA: see nucleic acid. RNA in full ribonucleic acid One of the two main types of nucleic acid (the other being DNA), which functions in cellular protein synthesis in all living cells and replaces DNA as the carrier of genetic in brain material was extracted with TRIzol, according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the manufacturer's instructions, then reverse transcribed and amplified by polymerase chain reaction polymerase chain reaction (pŏl`ĭmərās') (PCR), laboratory process in which a particular DNA segment from a mixture of DNA chains is rapidly replicated, producing a large, readily analyzed sample of a piece of DNA; the process is using primers 10g and 304 (11). Amplicons purified by using the Wizard TM Minipreps DNA DNA: see nucleic acid. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid One of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. purification system (Promega, Madison, WI) were sequenced with the ABI Abi (ā`bī) [short for Abijah], in the Bible, King Hezekiah's mother. (Application Binary Interface) A specification for a specific hardware platform combined with the operating system. RISM RISM Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (International Inventory of Musical Sources) RISM Reduced Instruction Set Model RISM Research Institute of Special Machinery DNA Sequencing DNA sequencing The determination of the sequence of nucleotides in a sample of DNA. Kit (PE Applied Biosystems Applied Biosystems, Inc. (formerly NASDAQ: ABIO) is the original name of a pioneer biotechnology company founded in 1981 in Foster City, California, among the Silicon Valley cities of the southern San Francisco Bay Area. , Foster City, CA), according to manufacturer's instructions. Automated fluorescence sequencing was performed on an Applied Biosystems 310 DNA sequencer A DNA sequencer is an instrument used to automate the DNA sequencing process. DNA sequencers have become more important due to large genomics projects and the need to increase productivity. (PE Applied Biosystem). Nucleotide sequence from a 302-bp region of the RABV nucleoprotein (bp 1175 to 1476) was aligned with Pasteur RABV, GenBank accession no. M 13215 (12). Nucleotide sequence for Texas bat samples was compared to the 17 genetic lineages of RABV identified for bat samples in a CDC repository (GenBank accession nos. AF045166, AF394868-394888, and AY039224-39229) (13). A phylogenetic phy·lo·ge·net·ic adj. 1. Of or relating to phylogeny or phylogenetics. 2. Relating to or based on evolutionary development or history. analysis of the sequence data was conducted by using the programs DNADIST, NEIGHBOR, SEQBOOT, and CONSENSE in the PHYLIP PHYLIP Phylogeny Inference Package (genetics software) package, version 3.5 (14). Graphic representation of the phylogenetic analysis was obtained with the program TREEVIEW (15). During the 5-year study period, 3,989 bats were submitted for RABV testing. More than 96% (n = 3,830) of all bats submitted from 1996 to 2000 were easily speciated; 159 (3.8%) were too decomposed de·com·pose v. de·com·posed, de·com·pos·ing, de·com·pos·es v.tr. 1. To separate into components or basic elements. 2. To cause to rot. v.intr. 1. , damaged, or immature for reliable identification to species or were inadvertently discarded before identification was complete. This dataset includes representatives from 19 of the 32 species found in Texas; also included are Desmodus rotundus Noun 1. Desmodus rotundus - mouse-sized bat of tropical Central America and South America having sharp incisor and canine teeth; feeds on the blood of birds and mammals from the Fort Worth Zoo The oldest continuous zoo site in Texas, the Fort Worth Zoo was founded in 1909 with one lion, two bear cubs, an alligator, a coyote, a peacock and a few rabbits. From these humble beginnings, the Zoo has grown into housing more than 350 native and exotic species, and has been and one or two species of fruit bats This article is about the band. For the article on the suborder of bats, commonly referred to as fruit bats, see Megabat Fruit Bats are an American band originally from Chicago, but now based in Seattle. . Tadarida brasiliensis Noun 1. Tadarida brasiliensis - the common freetail bat of southern United States having short velvety fur; migrates southward for winter guano bat, Mexican freetail bat was the most common species submitted for testing, followed by Lasiurus borealis. Rare submissions include Mormoops megalophylla, Myotis Myotis genus of bats. Includes M. thysanodes (fringed myotis bat), M. myotis (European common mouse-eared bat), M. lucifugus (little brown bat). austroriparius, M. californicus, M. ciliolabrum, M. thysanodes, M. yumanensis, Antrozous pallidus, and Nyctinomops macrotis. The prevalence of RABV in the submitted samples remained fairly constant; prevalence ranged from 8.9% in 1998 to 12.4% in 1997 with an average prevalence of 11%. Specimens from nine of the species tested positive for RABV. L. cinereus had the highest average positivity rate (26.3%) followed by T. brasiliensis (16.4%); this finding is in agreement with results of a recent study of the continental United States United States territory, including the adjacent territorial waters, located within North America between Canada and Mexico. Also called CONUS. (16). Nycticeius humeralis The Evening Bat (Nycticeius humeralis) is a species of vesper bat in the Vespertilionidae family. It can be found in the following countries: Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and United States. Source
MAb reaction patterns have been identified, and the complete N gene sequence is available from GenBank for the RABV associated with T. brasiliensis, L. borealis, L. cinereus, L. intermedius, and Eptesicus fuscus (Table 2 and Figure). Adequate material was available for examination of 407 of 416 rabies-positive samples (1996-2000) from these five bat species in Texas by antigenic analysis; 402 of 407 samples had reaction patterns that were expected for the species. Genetic analysis was used to confirm the antigenic typing result of 14 of the 407 samples typed by antigenic methods; other Texas samples included in the analysis are two samples not submitted to the Texas Department of Health, seven samples from 1986 to 1995, and 10 samples from bat species not commonly found rabid in Texas. MAb reaction pattern 1 described the RABV in 331 of 332 samples from T. brasiliensis. MAb reaction pattern 2 was found in 1 of 332 samples, suggesting interspecific in·ter·spe·cif·ic adj. Arising or occurring between species. interspecific also interspecies Arising or occurring between species. Adj. 1. infection through contact with L. borealis; however, no RABV genetic material could be amplified from the T. brasiliensis sample displaying reaction pattern 2. Reference samples from T. brasiliensis collected in Texas in 1984, 1993, and 1998 clustered in lineage 31 with virus from T. brasiliensis collected across the range of these bats in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Reaction pattern 2 described the RABV in 45 of 46 samples from L. borealis. MAb reaction pattern 1 was found in 1 of 46 samples, suggesting interspecific infection through contact with T. brasiliensis; however, the finding was not confirmed by genetic analysis. This sample, txlb 5770, clustered in lineage 26 with reference samples of L. borealis collected in Texas in 1986 and virus from L. borealis collected elsewhere in the eastern United States. Reaction pattern 3 described the RABV in 13 of 14 samples from L. cinereus. L. cinereus samples displaying reaction pattern 3 (n = 4) clustered in lineage 23 with L. cinereus samples collected across the range of these bats in the United States. One L. cinereus sample (txlc4259) differed in its reaction with the MAb panel (1-n, 12-w, 19-n, 7-w, 13w), but genetic analysis showed the sample clustered with other L. cinereus samples in lineage 23. Reaction pattern 4 was identified in 12 of 14 RABV from L. intermedius. The reaction pattern of the two exceptional L. intermedius samples was not known to be associated with any bat species. Because the CDC repository contains only Florida L. intermedius samples, seven Texas L. intermedius samples of reaction pattern 4 were submitted for genetic analysis. Five of the seven samples clustered in lineage 29, a lineage new to the CDC repository and not in GenBank. Two of the seven samples clustered in lineage 28 with L. intermedius samples from Florida. The two Texas L. intermedius samples with unrecognizable MAb patterns (1-w, 12-n, 19-n, 7-w, 13-n; 1n, 12-w, 19-n, 7-w, 13-p, respectively) clustered in lineage 29 (txli5768) and lineage 23 (txli4260) by genetic analysis. The single RABV sample from E. fuscus displayed reaction pattern 5. This sample was unavailable for genetic analysis, but a 1994 Texas E. fuscus sample (txef4250) with reaction pattern 5 RABV shared 99% identity with RABV samples from western big brown bats in lineage 1 (shown as representative samples from Colorado and Arizona). The remaining 11 rabies-positive samples from Texas bats were collected from M. velifer, L. seminolus, L. ega, or N. humeralis. Because no MAb reaction patterns or genetic lineages have been established for these species, 10 of 11 samples were typed by antigenic and genetic methods. The MAb reaction pattern for one sample from N. humeralis was determined, but the sample was unavailable for genetic analysis. The four samples from M. velifer displayed three different MAb reaction patterns. Sample txmv4267 displayed reaction pattern 1 and also clustered with other samples from T. brasiliensis in lineage 31 in the genetic analysis. The MAb reaction pattern of sample txmv4270 is not known to be associated with any bat species (1-n, 12-n, 19-n, 7n, 13-p), but the genetic analysis showed an association with L. cinereus in lineage 23. MAb reaction pattern 2 was found in txmv4258; however, genetic typing indicated lineage 5, a lineage new to the CDC repository. Lineage 5 was also found in sample txmv4256, which had displayed an MAb reaction pattern not known to be associated with any bat species (1-n, 12-p, 19-n, 7-w, 13-p). No other samples of lineage 5 exist in the CDC repository, and the repository contains only one other sample from M. velifer (from California). The California M. velifer sample clustered with M. brasiliensis samples in lineage 1 (not shown). The N. humeralis samples (n = 3) had previously unrecognized yet identical reaction patterns (1-n, 12-p, 19-n, 7-p, 13-n), as did two reference samples from this species collected in 1995. Two of the 1998 N. humeralis samples (txnh4267 and txnh4269) and two reference samples (txnh3011 and txnh3012) indicated lineage 9, a lineage new to the CDC repository; that repository contains only one other sample of a lineage 9 RABV, an M. austroriparius from Florida (not shown). The only additional RABV sample from N. humeralis in the repository, also from Florida, clustered with L. borealis samples in lineage 26 (not shown). The two RABV samples from L. seminolus displayed MAb pattern 2, associated with L. borealis. Both samples (txls4274 and txls5769) clustered with RABV from L. borealis in lineage 26. Three additional samples from L. seminolus in the CDC repository (all from Florida) also clustered with L. borealis samples (not shown). The L. ega sample (txle4266) displayed a unique MAb pattern (1-p, 12-n, 19-n, 7p, 13-p) and clustered in lineage 22 with three samples from L. ega bats from Arizona. Four additional samples from L. ega in the CDC repository did not contain a lineage 22 RABV. These samples contained lineages 1 and 23, which suggests infection through contact with T brasiliensis and L. cinereus, respectively. Conclusions For those laboratories without genetic typing capability, antigenic analysis with MAbs offers a rapid, simple, and inexpensive means of typing RABV for epidemiologie surveys. Our study suggests MAb typing can be useful for large-scale surveys in which hundreds to thousands of virus samples originate from only one or two bat species and the question is simply "Do we find in these species the RABVV that we expect to find?" All but 5 of 407 samples from T. brasiliensis, L. borealis, L. cinereus, L. intermedius, and E. fuscus tested in this study displayed the MAb patterns expected for the species. However, MAb typing by fluorescence microscopy Noun 1. fluorescence microscopy - light microscopy in which the specimen is irradiated at wavelengths that excite fluorochromes microscopy - research with the use of microscopes lacks precision. Surveys that rely solely on antigenic typing underestimate the true diversity of RABV in bat populations and may oversimplify o·ver·sim·pli·fy v. o·ver·sim·pli·fied, o·ver·sim·pli·fy·ing, o·ver·sim·pli·fies v.tr. To simplify to the point of causing misrepresentation, misconception, or error. v.intr. rabies transmission cycles. For example, antigenically identical samples from both L. borealis and L. intermedius segregate seg·re·gate v. seg·re·gat·ed, seg·re·gat·ing, seg·re·gates v.tr. 1. To separate or isolate from others or from a main body or group. See Synonyms at isolate. 2. as different genetic lineages (Figure) (13). This pattern of divergence does not correlate with time or the area in which either species was collected and must reflect some as-yet unknown aspect of natural history that partitions and segregates virus populations. These findings suggest not only that genetic typing offers a more precise identification of a RABVV but also that genetic analysis of RABV may help us better understand how the natural history of the host drives viral evolution. The observed genetic diversity among the 23 samples sequenced for this study was unexpectedly large for such a small sample set. Two lineages (5 and 29) consisted solely of Texas samples; lineage 9 had been identified previously in only one other sample (an M. austroriparius from Florida); and lineage 22 had been identified previously only in L. ega samples from Arizona. The small number of samples in these four lineages does not allow designation of reservoir status for these species, but the genetic diversity in the RABV in Texas reflects the diversity of bat species in the southwestern United States and suggests that many, if not all, bat species transmit distinctive RABV. Identification of the species association of different variants of RABV could lead to valuable information about routes of virus transmission and mechanisms by which RABV persists in different bat populations.
Table 1. Bat species submitted to the Texas Department of Health
laboratory for rabies virus (RABV) testing (1996-2000)
Total no. received
Species (1996-2000)
Antrozous pallidus (pallid bat) 3
Desmodus rotundus (vampire bat) (a) 4
Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) 14
Lasiurrus borealis (eastern red bat) 714
L. cinereus (hoary bat) 57
L. ega (southern yellow bat) 80
L. intermedius (northern yellow bat) 153
Lasionycteris noctivagans (silver-haired bat) 5
Lasiurus seminolus (seminole bat) 14
Mormoops megalophylla (ghost-faced bat) 1
Myotis austroriparius (southeastern myotis) 1
M. californicus (California myotis) 1
M. ciliolabrum (western small-footed myotis) 1
M. thysanodes (fringed myotis) 1
M. velifer (cave myotis) 172
M. yumanensis (yuma myotis) 1
N. humeralis (evening bat) 410
Nyctinomops macrotis (big free-tailed bat) 5
Pipistrellus subflavus (eastern pipistrelle) 40
Tadarida brasiliensis (Brazilian free-tailed bat) 2,062
Fruit bats, not speciated (b) 2
Juvenile yellow bats (L. ega or L. intermedius) 65
Lasiurus sp. (c) 24
Unable to identify species (d) 159
Total 3,989
No. testing posi-
Species tive for RABV (%)
Antrozous pallidus (pallid bat) 0
Desmodus rotundus (vampire bat) (a) 0
Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) 1 (7.1%)
Lasiurrus borealis (eastern red bat) 48 (6.7%)
L. cinereus (hoary bat) 15 (26.3%)
L. ega (southern yellow bat) 2 (2.5%)
L. intermedius (northern yellow bat) 14 (9.2%)
Lasionycteris noctivagans (silver-haired bat) 0
Lasiurus seminolus (seminole bat) 2 (14.3%)
Mormoops megalophylla (ghost-faced bat) 0
Myotis austroriparius (southeastern myotis) 0
M. californicus (California myotis) 0
M. ciliolabrum (western small-footed myotis) 0
M. thysanodes (fringed myotis) 0
M. velifer (cave myotis) 4 (2.3%)
M. yumanensis (yuma myotis) 0
N. humeralis (evening bat) 3 (0.7%)
Nyctinomops macrotis (big free-tailed bat) 0
Pipistrellus subflavus (eastern pipistrelle) 0
Tadarida brasiliensis (Brazilian free-tailed bat) 338 (16.4%)
Fruit bats, not speciated (b) 0
Juvenile yellow bats (L. ega or L. intermedius) 0
Lasiurus sp. (c) 1 (4.2%)
Unable to identify species (d) 6 (3.8%)
Total 434 (11%)
(a) Vampire bats part of captive colony in zoo.
(b) Appear to be two different species.
(c) Too damaged to determine species; will probably fall
within one of the above mentioned Lasiurus sp.
(d) Extremely damaged, decomposed, or immature.
Table 2. Monoclonal antibody (MAb) reaction patterns of bat
rabies virus variants (RABVV), Texas
Pattern MAb 1 MAb 12 MAb 19 MAb 7 MAb 13
1 P P N P P
2 N N N P P
3 N W N W P
4 N N N P N
5 N P P P P
Pattern Bat species associated with RABVV
1 Tadarida brasiliensis (Brazilian free-tailed bat)
2 Lasiurus borealis (eastern red bat)
3 L. cinereus (hoary bat)
4 L. intermedius (northern yellow bat)
5 Eptesicus fuscus pallidus (big brown bat)
(a) P, positive; N, negative; W, weakly positive.
Acknowledgments We thank Letha Zuckero and Diane Preusse for assistance with bat identification; Pushker Raj for his support of the project; Pam Wilson, Bradley Hicks, and Guy Moore for editorial advice and bat identification assistance; and Barbara French and Cullen Geiselman for bat identification and geographic distribution information. This work was supported by the Texas Department of Health and by a Research Enhancement Grant from Texas State University at San Marcos. Mr. Rohde is an assistant professor at Texas State University at San Marcos in the Clinical Laboratory Science Program and adjunct professor of Biology at Austin Community College Austin Community College is a regional community college district with seven campuses located in various areas of Central Texas. The college's district is made up of the City of Austin and the Austin, Leander, Manor and Del Valle Independent School Districts. . His research interests include the epidemiology of zoonotic disease, molecular typing of pathogens, and establishing a regional reference laboratory to confirm rabies diagnostic tests and virus typing. References (1.) Smith JS. Monoclonal antibody monoclonal antibody, an antibody that is mass produced in the laboratory from a single clone and that recognizes only one antigen. Monoclonal antibodies are typically made by fusing a normally short-lived, antibody-producing B cell (see immunity) to a fast-growing studies of rabies in insectivorous insectivorous eating insects to the extent that they are significant as a contributor to the patient's diet. bats of the United States. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10(Suppl):S637-43. (2.) Smith JS, Orciari LA, Yager PA. Molecular epidemiology molecular epidemiology Molecular medicine An evolving field that combines the tools of standard epidemiology–case studies, questionnaires and monitoring of exposure to external factors with the tools of molecular biology–eg, restriction endonucleases, of rabies in the United States. Seminars in Virology virology, study of viruses and their role in disease. Many viruses, such as animal RNA viruses and viruses that infect bacteria, or bacteriophages, have become useful laboratory tools in genetic studies and in work on the cellular metabolic control of gene expression 1995;6:387-400.] (3.) Feller MJ, Kaneene JB, Stobierski MG. Prevalence of rabies in bats in Michigan, 1981-1993. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1997;210:195-200. (4.) Schmidly DJ. The bats of Texas. College Station (TX): Texas A&M University Press; 1991. (5.) Dean D J, Abelseth MK. The fluorescent antibody test Fluorescent antibody test (FA test) A test in which a fluorescent dye is linked to an antibody for diagnostic purposes. Mentioned in: Rabies . in: Kaplan MM, Koprowski H, editors. Laboratory techniques in rabies. Geneva Geneva, canton and city, Switzerland Geneva (jənē`və), Fr. Genève, canton (1990 pop. 373,019), 109 sq mi (282 sq km), SW Switzerland, surrounding the southwest tip of the Lake of Geneva. : World Health Organization; 1973. p. 73-84. (6.) Smith JS, Reid-Sanden FI, Roumillat LF, Trimarchi C, Clark K, Baer GM, et al. Demonstration of antigenic variation among rabies virus isolates by using monoclonal antibodies to nucleocapsid nucleocapsid /nu·cleo·cap·sid/ (noo?kle-o-kap´sid) a unit of viral structure, consisting of a capsid with the enclosed nucleic acid. nu·cle·o·cap·sid n. proteins. J Clin Mierobiol 1986;24:573-80. (7.) Smith JS. Rabies virus epitopic variation: use in ecologic studies. Adv Virus Res 1989;36:215-53. (8.) Smith JS, Yager PA, Bigler WJ Hartwig Jr EC. Surveillance and epidemiologic mapping of monoclonal antibody-defined rabies variants in Florida. J Wildl Dis 1990;26:473-85. (9.) Crawford-Miksza LK, Wadford, DA, Schnurr, DE Molecular epidemiology of enzootic en·zo·ot·ic adj. Prevalent among or restricted to animals of a specific geographic area. Used of a disease. n. An enzootic disease. enzootic peculiar to or present constantly in a location. See also endemic. rabies in California. J Clin Virol 1999;14:207-19. (10.) Childs JE, Trimarchi CV, Krebs JW. The epidemiology of bat rabies in New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of State, 1988-92. Epidemiol Infect 1994;113:501-11. (11.) Rohde RE, Neill SU, Clark KA, Smith JS. Molecular epidemiology of rabies epizootics in Texas. J Clin Virol 1997;8:209-17. (12.) Tordo N, Poch O, Ermine ermine, name for a number of northern species of weasel having white coats in winter, and highly prized for their white fur. It most commonly refers to the white phase of Mustela erminea, called short-tailed weasel in North America and stoat in the Old World. A, Keith G, Rougeon F. Walking along the rabies genome: is the large G-L intergenic region a remnant gene? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1986;83:3914-8. (13.) Smith JS. Molecular Epidemiology. In: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editors, Rabies. San Diego: Academic Press; 2002. p. 79-113. (14.) Felsenstein J. PHYLIP Inference Package, Version 3.5c. Seattle (WA): University of Washington; 1993. (15.) Page RAM. TREEVIEW: an application to display phylogenetic trees on personal computers. Comput Appl Biosci 1996;12:357-8. (16.) Mondul AM, Krebs JW, Childs JE. Trends in national surveillance for rabies among bats in the United States (1993 2000). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:633-9. Address for correspondence: Rodney E. Rohde, Texas State University San Marcos, Clinical Laboratory Science Program, HSC HSC - High Speed Connect 361, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, Texas San Marcos is a city in Texas, USA. The population was 34,733 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Hays County.GR6 Texas State University-San Marcos (formerly Southwest Texas State University) is located in the city. 78666, USA: fax: 512-245-7860; email: rrohde@txstate.edu Rodney E. Rohde, * Bonny C. Mayes, ([dagger]) Jean S. Smith, ([double dagger]) and Susan U. Neill * ([section]) * Texas State University at San Marcos, San Marcos San Marcos is a municipality in the San Marcos department of Guatemala. It lies alongside San Pedro, almost inseparable. Altitute is around 5000 ASL with mountains and hill surrounding. 6 months of heavy rainfall and a drier season , Texas, USA; ([dagger]) Austin Community College, Austin, Texas, USA; ([double dagger]) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA; and ([section]) Texas Department of Health Bureau of Laboratories, Austin, Texas, USA |
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