Background History: The 8th - 20th Century A.D.

In keeping with Shiite tradition, Zain Al Abidin named his son Mohammed Al Baqir as his spiritual heir before his death in 712. Baqir continued with the accommodating approach towards the Ummayyads taken by his father, but those Shiites displeased with this approach supported Zaid Ibn Ali, the younger brother of Zain Al Abidin. A revolt was begun in 740 under Zaid's inspiration, but it was suppressed. Later, in 743, Zaid's son Yahya Ibn Zaid rebelled in the Khurasan, the eastern most province of the prevailing Islamic empire, but that effort was defeated as well.

During the latter part of the 8th century there were a series of revolutions and bloody wars throughout the Islamic World, which were due to the injustice and oppressive practices of the Ummayyads. There began an anti-Umayyad movement in the name of the Household of the Prophet in Khurasan. One of the leaders of this movement was the Persian military general, Abu Muslim Marwazi, who had rebelled against Umayyad rule and to advance his cause. He proceeded in a step-by-step manner until he was able to overthrow the Umayyad government.

This anti-Ummayyad movement originated from a deep Shiite background and came into being with the claim of wanting to avenge the blood of the Household of the Prophet. It is important to note, however, that although people were even asked secretly to give allegiance to a qualified member of the family of the Prophet, all this did not arise directly as a result of the instructions of the Imams. This can be seen from the fact that when Abu Muslim offered the caliphate to the sixth Imam in Medina he rejected it completely saying: "You are not one of my men and the time is not my time". The insurgency gained momentum and succeeded in ousting the Ummayyads in 750.

After the Ummayyads came the Abbasid Caliphate, named after Abbas, the uncle of Prophet Mohammed. The Abbasids gained the caliphate in the name of the family of the Prophet and at the beginning showed some kindness to people in general and to descendants of the Prophet in particular. In the name of avenging the martyrdom of the family of the Prophet, they massacred the Ummayyads, even going to the extent of opening their graves and burning whatever they found in them.

Yet soon the Abbasids too began to follow the corrupt ways of the Ummayyads and eventually got a reputation for injustice and reckless actions, just like their predecessors. Abu Hanifah, the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of law, was imprisoned by the Abbasid ruler Al Mansur and whipped. The sixth Imam died from poisoning after much torture and pain. The descendants of the Holy Prophet were sometimes beheaded in groups, buried alive, or even placed within walls of government buildings under construction.

This was a time of immense power and wealth for the Islamic empire, under the Abbasid Caliph Haroun Al Rashid. It was a time seen by many in the Islamic world as a golden age for Muslims. Indeed, during Haroun Al Rashid's reign, the Islamic empire reached the apogee of its expansion and power. The caliph would occasionally would look at the sun and address it in these words: "Shine wherever thou wilt, thou shalt never be able to leave my kingdom".

Things were not all under control, nevertheless. On the one hand, the caliph's armies were advancing towards the East and the West. But on the other hand a few steps from the palace of the caliph, and without his knowledge, officials had decided on their own to collect tolls from people who wanted to cross the Baghdad Bridge. It is recorded that one day when the caliph wanted to cross the bridge, even he was stopped and asked to pay the toll.

Still things were relatively stable because of the bewildering amount of wealth that was pouring every year from all corners of the Islamic empire into the public treasury in the capital, which helped create a degree of economic well-being and a prosperous atmosphere. But much of it in fact was often spent for the pleasures and iniquities of the caliph of the time. It is said that the number of slave girls in the court of some of the caliphs exceeded thousands. For the Shiite community, all this did not mean much in the way of benefit. Indeed, Shiite historians regard the dissolution of Umayyad rule and the establishment of the Abbasids, as merely a change in the name of the oppressive system.

The 9Th Century: At the beginning of the 9th century Shiism was able to flourish in a moderate way once again. This more favourable condition was due to the fact that many scientific and philosophical books were translated from Greek, Syriac, and other languages into Arabic, and people studied the intellectual and rational sciences. Al Maamun, the Abbasid caliph from 813 AD to 833 AD, had philosophical leanings and since in his religious views he favoured an intellectual approach, he was more inclined to give complete freedom to the discussion and propagation of different religious views.

Shiite theologians and scholars took full advantage of this freedom and did their utmost to further scholarly activities and propagate Shiite teachings. Moreover, Al Maamun, following demands by the political forces at the time, had made the eighth Shiite Imam his successor. As a result, the descendants of the Holy Prophet and their friends were to a certain extent free from pressures from the regime and enjoyed some degree of liberty.

Yet before long the cutting edge of the sword once again turned towards the Shiites and the oppressive experiences they had to undergo in the past came upon them again. This was particularly true in the case of Al Mutawakkil (847-861 AD) who held a special enmity towards Ali and the Shiites. By his order the tomb of the third Imam in Karbala was completely demolished.

The 10th Century: In the 10th century AD certain conditions again prevailed which greatly aided the spread and strengthening of Shiism. Among them were the weaknesses that appeared in the central Abbasid government and administration and the appearance of the Buyid rulers. The Buyids, who were Shiite, had the greatest influence not only in the provinces of Persia but also in the capital of the caliphate in Baghdad, and even upon the caliph himself.

This new strength of considerable proportions enabled the Shiites to stand up before their Sunni opponents who previously had tried to crush them by relying upon the power of the caliphate. It also made it possible for the Shiites to propagate their religious views openly. Historians record that during the 10th century, most of the Arabian Peninsula was Shiite with the exception of some of the big cities. Even some of the major cities like Hajar, Uman, and Saadah were Shiite. In Basra, which had always been a Sunni city and competed with Kufa which was considered a Shiite center, there appeared a notable group of Shiites. In Tripoli, Nablus, Tiberias, Aleppo, Nayshapur, and Herat there were many Shiites, while Ahwaz and the coast of the Persian Gulf on the Persian side were also Shiite.

At the beginning of the 10th century Nasir Utrush, after many years of propagation of his religious mission in northern Persia, gained power in Tabaristan and established a kingdom which continued for several generations after him. Before Utrush, Hasan Ibn Zayd Al Alawi had reigned from many years in Tabaristan. Also in this period the Fatimids, who were Ismaili Shiites, conquered Egypt and organised a caliphate which lasted for over two centuries (908-1171 AD). Disputes and fighting often broke out in major cities like Baghdad, Cairo and Nayshapur between Shiites and Sunnis, and the Shiites were strong enough to emerge victorious in some of these engagements.

The 11th-15th Centuries: From the 11th to the 15th centuries AD, Shiism continued to expand as it had done in the 10th century. Many kings and rulers who were Shiite appeared in different parts of the Islamic world and propagated Shiism. Toward the end of the 11th century the missionary activity of Ismailism took root in the fort of Alamut and for nearly a century and a half the Ismailis lived in complete independence in the central regions of Persia.

The Sadat i Maraashi, who were descendants of the Holy Prophet, ruled for many years in Mazandaran (Tabaristan). Shah Muhammad Khudabandah, one of the well-known Mongol rulers, converted to Shiism and his descendants ruled for a long period in Persia and were instrumental in spreading Shiism. It is also to be noted that the kings of the Shiite Aq Qoyunlu and Qara Qoyunlu dynasties ruled in Tabriz. Their domain extended to Fars and Kerman, as well as of the Fatimid government, which was ruling in Egypt.

Religious freedom and the possibility of the expression of religious power by the populace differed under different rulers. For example, with the termination of Fatimid rule and coming to power of the Ayyubids the scene changed completely and the Shiite populations of Egypt and Syria lost their religious independence. Many of the Shiites of Syria were killed during this period merely on the accusation of following Shiism.

One of these was Shahid i Awwal (the First Martyr) Muhammad Ibn Makki, one of the great figures in Shiite jurisprudence, who was killed in Damascus in 1384. Another figure, Shaikh Al Ishraq Shihab Al Din Suhrawardi, was killed in Aleppo on the accusation that he was cultivating Batini (a Shiite sect) teachings and philosophy. Nevertheless, during this period Shiism was growing from the point of view of expansion in terms of numbers, even though its religious power and freedom depended upon local conditions and the rulers of the time. Yet during this time, Shiism was never became the official religion of any Islamic state.

The 16th-17th Centuries: In the 10th/16th century Ismail, who was of the household of Shaikh Safi Al Din Ardibili (died 1334 AD), a Sufi master and also a Shiite, began a revolt in Ardibil, with three hundred Sufis who were disciples of his forefathers, with the aim of establishing an independent and powerful Shiite country. In this way he began the conquest of Persia and overcame the local feudal princes. After a series of bloody wars with local rulers and also the Ottomans who held the title of caliph, he succeeded in forming Persia piece by piece into a country and in making Shiism the official religion in his kingdom.

After the death of Shah Ismail other Safavid kings reigned in Persia until the 18th century and each continued to recognize Shiism as the official religion of the country and further to strengthen its hold upon this land. At the height of their power, during the reign of Shah Abbas, the Safavids were able to increase the territories and the population of Persia to twice its size.

Within other Muslim lands, the Shiite population continued the same as before and increased only through the natural growth of population. But the hold Shiism gained over Persia, which later became Iran, was never to be relinquished. Even though the heartland of Shiism (in southern Iraq) reverted to Sunni control, the fact that neighbouring Persia/Iran was Shiite helped to keep up the sectarian spirit in the holy areas of Najaf, Karbala, etc.

The 18th-20th Centuries: During the past three centuries Shiism has followed its natural rate of growth as before. At present, i.e. during the latter part of the 20th century and in the early 21st century, Shiism is recognised as the official religion in Iran, and in the Yemen and Iraq the majority population is Shiite.

There are other countries in the Middle East where Shiites either form a majority of the population (albeit without this fact being recognised by the regime in power) or form a significant minority. In nearly all lands where there are Muslims one can find number of Shiites. It has been estimated that altogether in the world today there are 100-120 million Shiites.

Some strategists in the Middle East are projecting a scenario involving an escalation of tensions between the Shiites and Sunnis in the region. They envisage the emergence of an increasingly powerful bloc of Shiite communities, controlling a significant part of the Middle East energy reservoir - in Iran, Iraq and the Saudi Eastern Province. Such a development will have historical implications for the sectarian balance in the region where, Sunni elites have been dominant for centuries.

According to the strategists, a widening sectarian rift between the Sunnis and Shiites will then become one more aspect of the US-led war against terrorism. Any resultant violence between the two communities is likely to be used to turn the focus of radical Islamists away from their current targets in the West and towards their sectarian opponents. This would benefit the US, Britain and their allies as it would help ease the pressure on their forces in Iraq, Afghanistan and perhaps other countries in the years ahead. (See the contemporary perspective on Shiism in Part 4).