Assessing students for morality education: a new role for school counselors.

Violence in schools needs to be ameliorated by corrective measures that include morality education. School counselors, by their training in dealing with problems of students and their families, are the best qualified to teach the importance of values. Assessment of morality and vignettes on morality are provided. Instruments to measure spirituality and religiousness are also discussed.

**********

Violence in the school has become an all too real tragedy. Alienation and lack of empathy in youth are factors strongly involved in the violent behavior of children and adolescents (Carlson, 2003; Rayburn & Richmond, 2001a; Raywid & Oshiyama, 2000; Sandhu, Arora, & Sandhu, 2001). An undeveloped or seriously damaged moral conscience and spiritual emptiness have been found in youth with violent behavior. Spiritual emptiness has been defined as absence of love, meaning, transcendence, hope, belonging, empathy, and completeness (Sandhu et al.). Angry, alienated youth have difficulty establishing trusting and therapeutic relationships (Sandhu, 2000). Schools have been envisioned as places in which significant nurturing of students occurs and where all aspects of the curriculum and environment emphasize valued human qualities. In the schools, ideally, focus is placed on mutual respect, support, cooperative individualism, and development of an atmosphere of trust and belief in the goodness of all persons (Sink & Rubel, 2001). School counselors have been well-trained to work with students to resolve problems, and it would be most feasible and beneficial for them to educate students in matters of morality.

RELIGIOUSNESS, SPIRITUALITY, AND MORALITY

Misbehavior is related to moral deficiency in individuals or in systems. When moral deficiencies such as bullying and violence are identified, corrective measures can be taken. Religiousness and spirituality are related to the moral development of college students (Parks, 1993; Serow & Dreyden, 1990). Educational institutions need to take a more active part in developing moral training for college students in order to fight moral decay. When students have more interest in the moral integrity, of society, they are more able to meaningfully and constructively shape society and promote social change (McCagg, 2003).

Growth in moral values development has not kept pace with the increase in violence. Rather, it appears that society is living by a code of survival of the greediest. High acquisition of material goods achieves the status of power and all that is viewed as good and desirable. Conversely, peacefulness, spirituality, and morality are significantly related to loving concern or caring for others and having a sense of responsibility in protecting the environment (Rayburn & Richmond, 2001a). Spirituality and morality have at times been associated with religiousness, which has been defined as formal beliefs and creeds involving religious beliefs and spiritual growth, transcendence, caring for others, and forgiveness (Rayburn, 2001; Rayburn & Richmond, 2001a, b). These factors can be measured by the Inventory on Religiousness (Rayburn & Richmond, 1997). On the other hand, spirituality has been seen as caring for others, seeking goodness and truth, forgiveness, cooperation, peace, and transcendence. The Inventory on Spirituality (Rayburn & Richmond, 2003) can be used to measure this factor. Spirituality is not limited to theists but includes atheists, agnostics, and denominationally unaffiliated individuals. Morality involves ideas of right and wrong. While the tenets of religiousness and spirituality bear some relationship to those of morality, there are some significant differences. Caring for others appears to be vital to all three areas, as well as to peacefulness. At some basic level, however, morality involves an awareness and appreciation of what is acceptable and morally valued by both society and the truth and goodness-seeking self. The State-Trait Morality Inventory measures general or ingrained as well as situational morality (Rayburn, Birk, & Richmond, 2003).

Related to spirituality and morality as well as to religiousness is peacefulness. Studies with the Peacefulness Inventory and Children's and Adolescents' Peace Inventory have demonstrated these relationships (Rayburn, Handwerker, & Richmond, 1999, 2003). Peacefulness, more than simply an absence of contentiousness and constant ill-feeling, involves the presence of an attitude and action of cooperation, caring, kindness, forgivingness, gentleness, honesty, and agreeableness. As in character education programs, highly important values are trustworthiness, respectfulness, responsibility, caring for others and the environment, and fairness.

MORALITY EDUCATION/VALUES TRAINING/CHARACTER BUILDING

Character Education

By whatever name--whether morality education, values training, character building, or character education--it is a controversial topic in public schools. Some parents, administrators, politicians, and others worry that anything involving teaching values or morality in public schools might be teaching religion or at least values of a particular group or denomination. Parents, the primary and most vital educators of morality and of any desired religious teachings for their children, understandably want a decisive role in any final planning for morality education in the public schools. In such settings, there can be neither religious indoctrination nor any denigration of the value of commitment to religious and philosophical leanings. Understandably, the family's and the community's desire is for individuals to choose their own values. The struggle over who should teach values and what values should be taught greatly influenced the decline in morality education in the 1960s and the 1970s. However, with the tragedy at Columbine and other school shootings across the country and in Canada, the dire need for well-planned and continuous morality education has become undeniable. Teaching students core values can vastly improve their ability to appreciate, understand, cooperate, and interact with others in their world. Further, it provides an undergirding for them to be able to choose to follow a moral or right and good path throughout life (Rivlin, 1943).

Morality Development

Several theories of" moral development have been proposed, identifying various stages of development (Hoffman, 2000; Kohlberg, 1976; Piaget, 1965, 1971). Pearson (2000) proffered that, to be beneficial for young children, the school curriculum must be aware of and appreciate the "egocentric nature" of primary school-age children. For upper elementary-age children, the curriculum must acknowledge and understand the "sociocentric" stage in that age group.

The moral development theories of Kohlberg (1976) and Hoffman (2000) cannot be integrated but rather they are complementary to each other (Gibbs, 2003). For Hoffman, the good, with its empathic center, is the primary affective motive for moral development and action. He proposed empathy and such affective aspects as necessary attitudes for goodness that motivates responsible caring for others (Hoffman). Empathy, the feeling in or with another's emotions during their suffering or other experiences, was viewed by Gibbs as having a biological and affective base, mediated cognition, and predisposed socialization to connect emotionally with others. Caring is seen as depth of feeling in the development of morality (Gibbs).Hoffman thought that unqualified power-based discipline is antithetical to the growth of empathy, leading the child toward self-centeredness and possibly limiting prosocial behavior (Hoffman).

Young children in Stage 1 of cognitive development (see Table) have difficulty in understanding mixed emotions (Harter, 1999). Concrete and simple morality is found in Stage 1, with its strict payback, precise equality, and getting even aspects (Gibbs, 2003). The egocentrism or ego bias of this stage is a favoring of one's own perspective over another's or a distortive tendency to assimilate another's point of view to one's own. Stage 3 includes appeals to ideal and intangible bases for reciprocity; interpersonal relationships with mutual trust, caring, and respect; and the Golden Rule moral viewpoint (Gibbs). Justice, or the claim to intrinsic right and wrong, and beneficence, or any action meant to benefit others, make up the substance of another moral viewpoint (Beauchamp & Childress, 2001). Self-serving cognitive distortions could lead to thinking errors or faulty beliefs in another moral theory (Ellis, 1977).

Existential development may transcend familiar moral judgment stages. This involves formulation of philosophies or moral principles, spiritual awareness and ethical insights, or ontological inspiration that lessens self-serving cognitive distortions. Existential thinking occurs with some adolescents but mainly with adults. For Gibbs (2003), moral ontology is moral development and reality. Gibbs concluded that the right and the good of morality interrelate and complement each other. Moral motivation involving an urge to correct injustice (a desire to right the wrong and create a balance) is both cognitive (Kohlberg, 1976) and affective (Hoffman, 2000). In moral judgment or cognitive evaluation and justification of the "shoulds" of prescriptive values of right and wrong, there must be an understanding of right and wrong and the good of morality in the practices of a culture (Gibbs).

In an analysis of antisocial behavior, it was proposed that moral developmental delay in many antisocial juveniles contributed to their inadequate grasp of moral values (Gregg, Gibbs, & Basinger, 1994). In false morality, antisocial persons may evidence distorted anger, vengeance, retribution, or retaliation rather than love and compassion. Furthermore, immature moral judgment may lead to empowerment of violence through empathic distress in such false morality (Gibbs, 2003). Derogation and antisocial behavior mar" result from self-serving cognitive distortion or cognitively blaming the victim. When antisocial youth have an inflated sense of their own rights and are ready to see themselves as wronged, they may develop a self-centeredness that is grandiose from belief in their superiority or may become vulnerable from fear of their potential inadequacy (Gibbs). Ego-strength, the persistence toward attainment of a goal linking veridical and mature moral perception, is a corrective for much distorted cognition (Gibbs).

Growing beyond superficiality in universal truths of the right and the good is transcendent in nature. In the puzzle of the meaning of the universe, love and the ethics of mutual respect may be clues to a primary reality. In the midst of moral crisis, morally mature individuals may start to sense or to identify with the wholeness and vastness of nature, of which they are a small part. In a very advanced stage of moral development, individuals may transcend existential despair and find inspiration from a deeper reality, away from self-centeredness, angry distortion, and injustice toward love and justice. Gibbs (2003), pondering whether morality is ultimately love and connectedness, concluded that all deep moral perceptions might give some insight into deeper reality, of human connection.

School Counselor's Role

We have been considering a topic that has gone by several labels but that has a common thread running throughout its tapestry however or wherever it has been woven. It involves ideas of right and wrong and the good. Ideally, parents would be the source of much morality teaching, but for various reasons, including financial necessity of both parents working outside the home, consistent and adequate familial training in many cases does not seem to have occurred. Nor, in many cases, has the religious establishment--wherever this has been involved in the lives of children and adolescents--taken up this challenge to a sufficient degree. The school, as the community's approach to violence prevention, nurtures and informs the students about moral values essential to their functioning at optimal levels with others in their environments (Sink & Rubel, 2001). School counselors who have been trained to make assessments and to have therapeutic interactions within the school environment, are a vital part of the school community. They are well-suited to work with school populations in programs for values training or morality education.

Typically, school counselors get referrals from teachers, principals, and other school personnel about problem children and adolescents who are causing difficulties in the classroom or on the playground. It is essential that the school counselor be aware of the bullies in the school environment, as well as knowing who the victims have been--especially if patterns of aggressor and victim have been observed. There is a greater awareness of the increasing need for bully prevention programs and policies in schools (Hazier & Carney, 2000).

Relating her 8 years of experience working in an institutional setting with juvenile delinquents, this researcher pointed out the serious error of misinterpreting that those who have committed crimes have little or no conscience or morality. These adolescents did not seem to be without guilt or remorse. Rather, they maintained a tough exterior as a defense to cover feelings of rejection by others, of loneliness, vulnerability, and still caring for others and others' approval in the absence of trusting them and believing that others might care for them. They were often concerned with being accepted by others as good persons, despite their bad/wrong actions, and they desired such approval to have spiritual, transcendent meaning. Morality training with these adolescents proved to be highly effective and meaningful for them (Rayburn, 1985).

School counselors can help avert violence in schools through aiding troubled students to experience their law-abiding and nonviolent selves as authentic. Committing of violent acts, framed in existential terms, is a desire for belonging and meaning, or as reaction to anxiety and fear stemming from repressed anger or free choice (Carlson, 2003).

School counselors as program leaders are fulfilling more comprehensive roles within schools but they are hampered by erosion of their time spent with students and by the intrusiveness of administrative duties into their counseling plans (Dollarhide, 2003). Yet it is essential that school counselors lead in program design and advocacy (Baker, 2000; Hatch & Bowers, 2002; Herr, 2002). It is also necessary that school counselors lead in advocating and being front-runners in espousing healthy choices, social justice, healthy school environments, and healthy development of students and their families (Smaby & Daugherty, 1995). Such programs and advocacy would certainly include the much needed morality education or values training by school counselors. School counselors effectively advise, counsel, and educate students about relationships within the school community and with other peers, family, and community at large (Feller, 2003).

School counselors would most likely see morality education or values training operating best within a joint effort of school counselors, school administrators, teachers, parents, and communities. School personnel, working on the problem of morality education, depend on social and moral developmental theorists such as Piaget and Kohlberg for basic insight into moral development and training (Pearson, 2000).

SCHOOL COUNSELORS AND SUGGESTED ASSESSMENT TOOLS FOR MORALITY EDUCATION

School counselors have many tools with which to assess some general and specific areas of intellectual and social development, including behavioral observations, self-assessment questionnaires, and standardized tests. However, for morality education, special assessment tools may well be needed.

To evaluate students, school counselors could use the Inventory on Spirituality (Rayburn & Richmond, 2003). The IS, in which 35 items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale, indicates how students score on caring for others; seeking goodness, truth/forgiveness, and cooperation; and transcendence. This assessment is important because such attributes are the undergirding of learning about, being aware of, and caring for morality issues and concern about values. The IS is appropriate for administration by school counselors in the school setting, since it is an ecumenical instrument that may be used by theists and nontheists (Richards & Bergin, 1997).

The Children's and Adolescents' Peacefulness Inventory (CAPI; Rayburn, Handwerker, & Richmond, 2003) for those 11- to 16-years-old, or the Peacefulness Inventory (PI; Rayburn, Handwerker, & Richmond, 1999) for adolescents 17- to 19-years-old and adults could be used to establish how attuned to peacefulness individuals are. The CAPI has 14- and the PI has 16-paired items, rated on a 7-point scale. The CAPI and PI have paired but opposite adjectives for assessing the peacefulness or unrest of persons. How much people value peaceful versus belligerent behavior is an important backdrop to ideas of right and wrong and goodness.

The State-Trait Morality. Inventory (Rayburn, Birk, & Richmond, 2003) indicates how individuals think and feel recently (state morality) and generally (trait morality). In the State Morality scale, 22 of the 26 items concern selfishness, deceit, and dishonesty. In Trait Morality, 15 of the 26 items concern selfishness, deceit, and dishonesty, while seven other If items involve breaking rules and acting wickedly. The remaining items in each scale involve caring for others. State Morality is the case for situational ethics or morality (Rayburn & Richmond, 2001c; Rayburn, Handwerker, & Ronis, 2003).

All of these instruments, the IS, CAPI, PI, and STMI, have been found to be not only highly reliable assessment tools but also excellent learning devices to motivate discussion and reflection on spiritual attributes, peacefulness, moral ideas of right and wrong, and caring for oneself and others (Rayburn, 2003).

To get a baseline, it is very important that a good assessment be made of students' attitudes, conduct, and other aspects of character. Though not a common situation, school counselors must be aware of students who have been exposed to too much morality training and who rate very high on assessments of morality. Care needs to be taken not to over saturate such students, risking their behaving like sanctimonious saintly martyrs who disdain peers less moral than themselves (Aronson, personal communication, November 13, 2003). Counselors also need to abide by the ethical codes of the profession, which clearly state that counselors are not to impose their own values onto students.

VIGNETTES FOR TEACHING VALUES IN MORALITY EDUCATION

It is suggested that school counselors use vignettes, along with discussion questions, to teach values in morality education. The school community and others (e.g., parents and the community at large), for instance, need to have input as to which values might be taught or discussed. The following four vignettes are given as examples that might be adjusted age-wise to use with students, getting them to reflect upon the morality issues involved. Such vignettes and their accompanying questions can be used in individual, group, and family counseling.

Sharing vs. Selfishness

Joe and Rick have decided to go into a small business of selling health products to those in their city. Joe has volunteered to keep the books. In a month in which good profits were made, Joe had personal expenses that were higher than he could afford to pay off: He decided to "skim" some money off the top of the business profits, telling himself that he would not tell Rick about this and that he would put back this money as soon as possible.

* What was wrong with Joe's decision to take this money?

* How could Joe have solved his money problems without taking the money from the business?

* How would this affect Joe's relationship with Rick, and Kick's relationship with Joe?

* How would this affect Joe's behavior in general?

* Besides selfishness, what other wrong behavior has gone into Joe's decision to "borrow" the money?

* How has the selfish behavior violated the idea of sharing the profits?

* What does it mean to share? What thoughts and feelings go into sharing?

* How might this affect Joe's relationships with others in the future, and others' relationships with Joe?

Fair-Play vs. Hurting Others

Kendra and Sarah are running for class president in their high school. Both are bright, attractive, and popular. Kendra's family has many very successful and competitive people who strongly reject losers and losing. Kendra is desperate to win this office. She starts a rumor about Sarah, one that has no basis in reality but which Kendra has nonetheless made sound convincing. Kendra wins the election.

* What is wrong with Kendra's behavior in discrediting Sarah?

* How might Kendra have better handled the competition with Sarah?

* How might Kendra have better dealt with her feelings and her family?

* How will Kendra's behavior in this matter affect her future behavior? Her future relationship with Sarah? With her other friends and peers? With her family?

* Besides hurting others, what other wrong behaviors were involved here?

* How does hurting others in this way violate a sense of fair-play?

* What does it mean to commit to fair-play?

* When, if ever, might deliberately hurting others be justified?

Caring for Others vs. Meanness

Dustin, a quiet and studious adolescent from a family of limited financial means, has just moved into a new neighborhood and into a new school. He is in a class with Brad, a very popular athlete with good financial resources from his family. When Brad sees that some of the female adolescents want to study with Dustin rather than going to a movie with Brad on a few occasions, Brad gets furious. He starts calling Dustin names such as "geek," "egghead," and even "loser." Soon the others in the class do not want to associate with Dustin.

* What is wrong with Brad's behavior in being mean to Dustin?

* What might Brad have done to show more caring for Dustin, for others, and for himself?.

* How might Brad's behavior toward Dustin affect his future behavior?

* Besides Brad's meanness, what other wrong behaviors were involved?

* What thoughts and feelings go into meanness? Into caring for others?

* How might Brad's meanness affect his future relationships with Dustin, Dustin's future relationship with Brad, and others' future relationship with both Brad and Dustin?

Trusting vs. Lying and Vengefulness

Brittany and Brooke are cousins. They have been fairly close for years, sometimes even going on double-dates. Brittany has trouble being committed to any one guy and even in being truthful with the guys in her life. On occasion Brittany has lied to her date, gone out with someone else, and used Brooke to cover for her. Brittany has done this so much lately that Brooke has gotten tired of covering for her and saying that Brittany was with her. Finally, Brooke spoke out, telling Brittany's latest date that Brittany did not spend the previous evening with her. When the guy confronted her, Brittany was furious. Though Brooke had forewarned Brittany that she would no longer lie for her, Brittany did not take

Brooke seriously. Now Brittany was out for revenge. When both were at a party at a friend's house, Brittany went into the bedroom of the friend's parents and stole an expensive pearl necklace. She put the necklace into Brooke's handbag, later asked Brooke for a Kleenex, and when Brooke went to get the Kleenex, the necklace came tumbling out. Brooke did not know how to explain this, and she was mortified in front of her friends.

* What was wrong with Brittany's behavior in this situation?

* How might Brittany have dealt better with her date and with Brooke?

* How might Brittany's behavior towards her dates and towards Brooke affect her future relationships with them?

* Besides Brittany's lying and vengefulness, what other wrong behavior was involved?

* What thoughts and feelings go into truthfulness, lying, and vengefulness?

* What effect might Brittany's behavior have on Brooke's and others' relationships with Brittany? With others towards Brooke?

CONCLUSION

With their training in assessing student behavior and attitudes and in working with students' problems, school counselors are logically the ones to lead in the design and implementation of morality education programs. Assessing students on their spirituality (ecumenical) and morality as well as peacefulness, ideally would be done before beginning the morality education program. Involving the entire school community as well as parents and community at large would best serve such values training.

Vignettes, like those above, that present positive values for students could be administered by school counselors. School counselors will offer remedial psychological counseling to students needing extra help in understanding themselves and others. Working with students to help them to behave morally towards their peers, parents, and towards society in general, school counselors would have a decisive and significant victory in lessening school violence and in the impact on helping students to become better people and better citizens.

Stages of Cognitive and Moral Development

                  Piaget                       Kohlberg

Stage 1   Heteronymous morality;       Punishment and obedience;
          Here-and-now immediacy       Centering on the
          or vulnerability to a        immediate-attending to
          pronounced feature of the    one feature at a time,
          Current situation,           unidimensional thinking,
          egocentric or self-centered  attending to superficial or
                                       surface features

Stage 2   Reciprocity as a fact,       Instrumental purpose and
          pragmatic exchanges (tit-    exchange;
          for-tat);                    Individualism;
          Moral autonomy;              Decentration and growth
          Concrete decentration.       beyond the superficial,
                                       depth in attending to
                                       multiple sources of
                                       information.

Stage 3   Reciprocity as an ideal:     Interpersonal morality:
          Deeper ideal social logic    "Good boy/nice girl;"
          underpinning reciprocal      Member of society with
          exchanges;                   one identifying or
          Social interactions and      internalizing rules and
          reflections on morality as   others' expectations (e.g.,
          mutuality.                   expectations of authority).

Stage 4   Formal operations            Law and order, appeals to
                                       values of ideal society.

                  Hoffman

Stage 1   Empathy as egocentric
          distress;
          Seeking self-comfort as
          remedy to lessen distress;
          Three modes: Mimicry,
          classical conditioning,
          direct association;
          Affective sources of
          morality: Benevolence and
          empathy.

Stage 2   Quasi-egocentric empathic
          distress: helping another
          person through egocentric
          projection that relieves
          one's own discomfort;
          At more mature level,
          helping because one feels
          sorry for another's distress.

Stage 3   Empathetic distress in
          response to another's
          situation;
          More understanding of
          connections, causes, and
          consequences of another's
          situation.

Stage 4   Broader empathic stress,
          beyond the immediate
          situation;
          Empathy for the life
          situation or condition of an
          entire group.

References

Baker, S. B. (2000). School counseling for the twenty-first century. Upper Saddle River, N J: Prentice-Hall.

Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2001). Principles of biomedical ethics (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University.

Carlson, L. A. (2003). Existential theory: Helping school counselors attend to youth at risk for violence. Professional School Counseling, 6, 310-315.

Dollarhide, C.T. (2003). School counselors as program leaders: Applying leadership contexts to school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 6, 304-308.

Ellis, A. (1977). Rational-emotive therapy: Research data that support the clinical and personality hypotheses of RET and other modes of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Counseling Psychologist, 7, 2-42.

Feller, R. W. (2003). Connecting school counseling to the current reality. Professional School Counseling, 6(4), ii-v.

Gibbs, J. C. (2003). Moral development and reality: Beyond the theories of Kohlberg and Hoffman. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gregg, V. R., Gibbs, J. C., & Basinger, K. S. (1994). Patterns of developmental delay in moral judgment by male and female delinquents. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 40, 538-553.

Harter, S. (1999). The construction of self: A developmental perspective. New York: Guilford.

Hatch, T., & Bowers, J. (2002). The block to build on. ASCA School Counselor, 39, 12-21.

Hazier, R. J., & Carney, J. V. (2000).When victims turn aggressors: Factors in the development of deadly school violence. Professional School Counseling, 4, 105-112.

Herr, E. L. (2002). School reform and perspectives on the role of school counselors: A century of proposals for change. Professional School Counseling, 5, 220-234.

Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implication for caring and justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.

Kohlberg, L. (1976). Moral stages and moralization: The cognitive developmental approach. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral development and behavior (pp. 31-53), New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

McCagg, A. K. (2003). The relationship between religiousness and sexuality of freshmen. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Baylor University, Waco, TX.

Parks, S. (1993).Young adults, mentoring communities, and the conditions of moral choice. In A. Garrod (Ed.), Approaches to morel development: New research and emerging themes (pp. 214-227). New York: Teachers College.

Pearson, Q. (2000).Comprehensive character education in the elementary school: Strategies for administrators, teachers, and counselors. Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development, 38, 243-251.

Piaget, J. (1965). Moral judgment of the child (M. Gabain, Trans.). New York: Free Press. (original work published in 1932).

Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development (S. Opper, Trans.). In D. R. Green, M. P. Ford, & G. B. Flamer (Eds.), Measurement and Piaget (pp. 1-11). New York: McGraw-Hill. (original work published in 1951).

Rayburn, C. A. (1985). Prisons. In R. J. Wicks, R. D. Parsons, & D. E. Capps (Eds.), Clinical handbook of pastoral counseling (pp. 360-375). Mahwah, NJ: Paulist.

Rayburn, C. A. (2001). Theobiology, spirituality, religiousness, and the Wizard of Oz. Psychology of Religion Newsletter, 26(1), 1-11.

Rayburn, C. A. (2003, October). Morality, spirituality, and religiousness. Paper presented at the conference of the Maryland School Counselor Association, Baltimore, MD.

Rayburn, C. A., Birk, J. M., & Richmond, L J. (2003). State-Trait Morality Inventory. Washington, DC: U.S. Copyright Office. (Original copyright 1987.)

Rayburn, C. A., Handwerker, S., & Richmond, L. J. (2003). Peacefulness Inventory. Washington, DC: U.S. Copyright Office. (Original copyright 1999.)

Rayburn, C. A., Handwerker, S., & Richmond, L. J. (2003). Children's and Adolescents' Peacefulness Inventory. Washington, DC: U.S. Copyright Office. (Original copyright 2002.)

Rayburn, C. A., Handswerker, S., & Ronis, D. (2003, May 23). Adolescent reactions to the 9/11 disaster and other traumas. Paper presented at the VIII European Conference on Traumatic Stress, Berlin, Germany.

Rayburn, C. A., & Richmond, L. J. (1997). Inventory on Religiousness. Washington, DC: U.S. Copyright Office.

Rayburn, C. A., & Richmond, L. J. (2003). Inventory on Spirituality. Washington, DC: U.S. Copyright Office. (Original copyright 1997.)

Rayburn, C. A., & Richmond, L. J. (2001a). Peacefulness, spirituality, and violence prevention. In D. S. Sandhu (Ed.), Faces of violence: Psychological correlates, concepts, and intervention strategies (pp. 455-464). Huntington, NY: Nova Science.

Rayburn, C. A., & Richmond, L J. (2001b). Women, whither goest thou? To chart a new course in religiousness and spirituality and to define ourselves! In M. R. Dunlap, L. H. Collins, & J. C. Chrisler (Eds.), Charting a new course for feminist psychology (pp. 167-189).Westport, CT: Praeger.

Rayburn, C. A., & Richmond, L. J. (2001c). The State-Trait Morality Inventory: The case of situational ethics. Pa per presented at the Annual Conference of the International Council of Psychologists, July 10, Winchester, UK.

Raywid, M. A., & Oshiyama, L. (2000). Musings in the wake of Columbine: What can schools do? Phi Delta Kappan, 81, 444-449.

Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. (pp. 197-198).Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Rivlin, H. (1943). Encyclopedia of modern education. New York: Philosophical Library.

Sandhu, D. S. (2000). Alienated students: Counseling strategies to curb school violence. Professional School Counseling, 4, 81-85.

Sandhu, D. S., Arora, M., & Sandhu, V. S. (2001). School violence: Risk factors, psychological correlates, prevention and intervention strategies. In D. Sandhu (Ed.), Faces of violence: Psychological correlates, concepts and intervention strategies (pp. 45-71). Huntington, New York: Nova Science.

Serow, R. C., & Dreyden, J. (1990). Community service among college and university students: Individual and institutional relationships. Adolescence, XXV, 553-566.

Sink, C.A., & Rubel, L (2001). The school as community approach to violence prevention. In D. Sandhu (Ed.), Faces of violence: Psychological correlates, concepts and intervention strategies (pp. 417-437). Huntington, NY: Nova Science.

Smaby, M. H., & Daugherty, R (1995). The school counselor as leader of efforts to have schools free of drugs and violence. Education, 115, 612-622.

Carole Rayburn, Ph.D., is a clinical, consulting, and research psychologist in Silver Spring, MD. E-mail: valentine.carole@ starpower.net She has developed 11 inventories on religiousness, spirituality; clergy stress, body image and intimacy, peacefulness, leadership, and life choices.