Assessing learning from hypertext: an individual differences perspective.
From an instructional perspective, it is conceivable
that employing an appropriate hypertext architecture should have
the advantage of facilitating learning by representing logically
the interrelationships between the different pieces of
information contained within the hypertext. Furthermore, there
would appear to be a sound theoretical rationale for suggesting
that the degree to which hypertext-based instructional systems
facilitate learning will be contingent on an individual's
cognitive style. This study aims to investigate whether
different hypertext architectures can be matched to an
individual's cognitive style to facilitate learning. Three
hypertext architectures, linear, hierarchical, and relational
were employed, and cognitive style was assessed using the
Cognitive Styles Analysis (Riding, 1991). The findings revealed
that for certain hypertext architectures learning may be
facilitated when the architecture is matched to the cognitive
style of the user. The results have implications for the design
of web-based learning systems.
********** Jl. of Interactive Learning Research (2003) 14(4), 425-438 The implementation of web-based learning in higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. over the last few years makes it necessary to properly evaluate such initiatives, principally because they represent a departure from traditional methods in education. One of the fundamental features of web-based learning systems is the use of hypertext hypertext, technique for organizing computer databases or documents to facilitate the nonsequential retrieval of information. Related pieces of information are connected by preestablished or user-created links that allow a user to follow associative trails across the . Accordingly, a useful starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting point terminus a quo commencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the for investigation is an analysis of the relative benefits of using hypertext in education. Theoretically, the nonlinear A system in which the output is not a uniform relationship to the input. nonlinear - (Scientific computation) A property of a system whose output is not proportional to its input. structure of hypertext should allow a degree of flexibility in the way in which educational information can be presented in comparison to ordinary text, and this would therefore be beneficial in terms of illustrating to the learner the interrelationships between the various units of information in the hypertext. Such a system could theoretically facilitate more efficient deep learning (Marton Marton is the name of several places, most of them in England:
It is conceivable con·ceive v. con·ceived, con·ceiv·ing, con·ceives v.tr. 1. To become pregnant with (offspring). 2. that the debate regarding the relative benefits of using hypertext for instruction may be settled in part through an investigation of individual differences in learner characteristics, that is investigating whether particular categories of individuals engage differently with hypertext. One category of individual differences, which has been adopted with great profit within the educational domain, is cognitive style Cognitive style is a term used in cognitive psychology to describe the way individuals think, perceive and remember information, or their preferred approach to using such information to solve problems. , which is characterised essentially by variations in the ways in which individuals process information. Indeed several studies have investigated such differences employing the cognitive style type field dependence-independence and relating this to the manner with which individuals engage with hypertext (Korthauer & Koubek, 1994; Lin Lin , Maya Ying Born 1959. American sculptor and architect whose public works include the Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C. (1982). Noun 1. & Davidson-Shivers, 1996). However, further analysis of the style type field dependence-independence have found it to be related to general intelligence (Satterly, 1976; McKenna McKenna is usually a surname, and may refer to
Riding (1991) advocated that the style constructs wholist-analytic and verbaliser-imager fulfil ful·fill also ful·fil tr.v. ful·filled, ful·fill·ing, ful·fills also ful·fils 1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises. 2. the criteria of being valid measures of cognitive style, being independent of personality, separate from intelligence and related to learning performance and learning preference. Accordingly, these cognitive style labels possibly represent more useful classifications of individual differences in information processing information processing: see data processing. information processing Acquisition, recording, organization, retrieval, display, and dissemination of information. Today the term usually refers to computer-based operations. than the style construct field dependence-independence. Wholist-Analytic Style and Hypertext The wholist-analytic cognitive style can be operationalised as the tendency for individuals to process information either as an integrated whole or in discrete parts of that whole. In practical terms, analytics are able to apprehend ideas or concepts in parts, but have difficulty integrating such ideas into complete wholes. However, wholists are able to view ideas as complete wholes, but are unable to separate these ideas into discrete parts (see Figure 1). Whalley (1993) suggested that hypertext versions of ordinary text may be difficult to understand because of the lack of a connecting narrative between the pages. Put another way, hypertext has the consequence of fragmenting the text into several smaller units, which reduces the overall meaning. Such a fragmentation (1) Storing data in non-contiguous areas on disk. As files are updated, new data are stored in available free space, which may not be contiguous. Fragmented files cause extra head movement, slowing disk accesses. A defragger program is used to rewrite and reorder all the files. of the meaning of the text would exacerbate an analytic an·a·lyt·ic or an·a·lyt·i·cal adj. 1. Of or relating to analysis or analytics. 2. Expert in or using analysis, especially one who thinks in a logical manner. 3. Psychoanalytic. individual's tendency to see information in parts, which may ultimately debilitate de·bil·i·tate tr.v. de·bil·i·tat·ed, de·bil·i·tat·ing, de·bil·i·tates To sap the strength or energy of; enervate. [Latin d their learning performance. Indeed, Riding and Grimley Grimley may mean:
tr.v. con·strained, con·strain·ing, con·strains 1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object. See Synonyms at force. 2. by the constricted con·strict v. con·strict·ed, con·strict·ing, con·stricts v.tr. 1. To make smaller or narrower by binding or squeezing. 2. To squeeze or compress. 3. viewing window of the computer, which meant that only small units of information were presented at any one time. This ultimately increased the tendency of analytics to comprehend the information content in discrete parts, thus affecting their learning performance. However, unlike linear text, hypertext allows users the freedom to move between fragmented frag·ment n. 1. A small part broken off or detached. 2. An incomplete or isolated portion; a bit: overheard fragments of their conversation; extant fragments of an old manuscript. 3. pieces of information, following their own routes. Theoretically, this freedom of movement should help users derive an overview of the information content more effectively than when using linear text, and thus help them derive an understanding of the structure of the system more rapidly. Riding and Douglas (1993) suggested that analytic individuals are superior at seeing structure, and therefore it is equally possible that the fragmentation of information could be more advantageous to analytics, who would be able to apprehend the system structure more easily, thus facilitating their learning performance. Verbaliser-imager cognitive style and hypertext The verbaliser-imager cognitive style can be defined quite simply as an individual's tendency to process information either in words or in images. Verbalisers are superior at working with verbal information, (Riding & Mathias, 1991; Riding & Watts Watts, residential section of south central Los Angeles. Named after C. H. Watts, a Pasadena realtor, the section became part of Los Angeles in 1926. Artist Simon Rodia's celebrated Watts Towers are there. , 1997) whereas imagers are better at working with visual and spatial information. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Two of the major tasks a user needs to perform concurrently when using hypertext, are reading and understanding the contents of each page and secondly keeping track of their location within the hypertext document. Processing both tasks simultaneously demands a high level of cognitive load Cognitive Load is a term (used in Educational psychology and other fields of study) that refers to the load on working memory during problem solving, thinking and reasoning (including perception, memory, language, etc.). (Sweller, 1988, 1994) and accordingly, Tripp and Roby (1990) suggested that when using hypertext, learning performance may diminish because of this element of simultaneous processing. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke" put differently , individuals will need to focus on the task of keeping track of their location in the hypertext, thus leaving fewer mental resources directed towards reading and understanding the information to be learned. As noted earlier, verbalisers are superior at working with verbal information and accordingly will be superior at reading and understanding the information content of the hypertext. This should be beneficial to some extent, although because they focus less on keeping track of their location within the hypertext, their learning performance may decrease. Conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , because imagers are better when working with spatial information, they will be superior at keeping track of their location within the hypertext document, although their learning performance may diminish through not engaging with the information content as efficiently as verbalisers. To conclude, it is possible that verbalisers and imagers will direct attention to the tasks of reading and tracking location with different emphasis and this will be manifest manifest 1) adj., adv. completely obvious or evident. 2) n. a written list of goods in a shipment. MANIFEST, com. law. A written instrument containing a true account of the cargo of a ship or commercial vessel. 2. in their learning performance. Intermediate and Bimodal bi·mod·al adj. 1. Having or exhibiting two contrasting modes or forms: "American supermarket shopping shows bimodal behavior Cognitive Styles Riding (1991) used the label intermediate to define individuals who fall between wholist and analytic, and bimodal to define individuals who fall between verbaliser and imager. Graff (2000) suggested that the adaptive nature of the intermediate and bimodal styles is unclear. In terms of the bimodal style, Paivio's (1971) dual-coding model offered some clarification suggesting that verbal and imaginal i·ma·gi·nal adj. Of, relating to, or having the form of an insect imago. information content is processed by different subsystems, one specialised Adj. 1. specialised - developed or designed for a special activity or function; "a specialized tool" specialized specific - (sometimes followed by `to') applying to or characterized by or distinguishing something particular or special or unique; "rules with for verbal language and the other for sensory images sensory image n. An image based on one or more types of sensation. . The two systems are assumed to be distinct or independent in terms of the functions they serve. However, even though the systems are independent, they are interconnected so that a concept represented as an image can be converted to a verbal label in the other system. However, it is still unclear as to what extent intermediates possess the qualities of analytics and wholists and to what extent bimodals possess the qualities of verbalisers and imagers. Clearly following the rationale rationale (rash´  nal´),n the fundamental reasons used as the basis for a decision or action. outlined earlier, the more wholist and analytic qualities which are possessed by intermediates, and the more verbaliser and imager qualities which are possessed by bimodals, the more effectively these individuals will engage with and learn from hypertext. The Matching Hypothesis The matching hypothesis is a popular psychological theory proposed by Goffman in 1952, it suggests why people become attracted to their partner. It claims that people are more likely to form long standing relationships with those who are equally as physically attractive as they are. It is also critical to note that the potential benefit of hypertext to learning may also be considered by assessing the relative benefits of delivering educational material using different hypertext architectures. There is evidence to suggest that learning performance is enhanced when mixed hypertext architectures are employed (Mohageg, 1992; McDonald & Stevenson, 1998; Shapiro, 1998). In these studies mixed hypertext architectures were hierarchical A structure made up of different levels like a company organization chart. The higher levels have control or precedence over the lower levels. Hierarchical structures are a one-to-many relationship; each item having one or more items below it. with lateral lateral /lat·er·al/ (-il) 1. denoting a position farther from the median plane or midline of the body or a structure. 2. pertaining to a side. lat·er·al adj. 1. links. It is also possible, that the individual differences in cognitive style, as previously described, may influence how effectively an individual engages with and learns from particular hypertext architectures. To this end certain architectures may be more appropriate to individuals possessing different cognitive styles and this reasoning is derived from the cognitive style matching hypothesis. The cognitive style matching hypothesis essentially suggests that when the cognitive styles of instructor and student are matched, then the efficacy of learning experienced by the student will be improved (Figure 2). However, empirical findings on this theoretical notion would appear to be inconclusive INCONCLUSIVE. What does not put an end to a thing. Inconclusive presumptions are those which may be overcome by opposing proof; for example, the law presumes that he who possesses personal property is the owner of it, but evidence is allowed to contradict this presumption, and show who is (Packer packer /pack·er/ (pak´er) an instrument for introducing a dressing into a cavity or a wound. pack·er n. 1. An instrument for tamponing. 2. See plugger. & Bain, 1978; Saracho & Dayton, 1980; McKenna, 1990). In this respect, hypertext would appear to offer far more promise to such a matching hypothesis, as the architecture may be designed with consideration to the cognitive style of the user, taking account of factors such as an individual's ability to determine their current position within the hypertext and also their ability to effectively apprehend the structure of the system. The aim of this investigation is to enquire en·quire v. Variant of inquire. enquire Verb [-quiring, -quired] same as inquire enquiry n Verb 1. whether matching a hypertext architecture to the cognitive style of the user can facilitate performance. METHOD Participants A total of 96 participants took part in this study, 38 male and 58 female, with a mean age of 22.97, an SD of 5.67, minimum age of 19 and maximum age of 45. The participants were all second year undergraduate students, studying courses in humanities. All participants were questioned informally before undertaking this study and displayed a good level of computer literacy Understanding computers and related systems. It includes a working vocabulary of computer and information system components, the fundamental principles of computer processing and a perspective for how non-technical people interact with technical people. . [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Hypertext The subject matter of the hypertext document employed in this study was taken from various pieces of historical information and edited so that the names dates and events were altered in order to maintain consistency. Each page of hypertext typically contained between one and four sentences of information. The whole document consisted of 64 nodes or pages containing 3,388 words. The hypertext document was presented as one of three architectures corresponding to linear, hierarchical, and relational. A description of each architecture is outlined below. Diagrams of the hypertext architectures employed are shown in Figures 3 to 5. In the linear architecture, the hypertext pages were linked such that the user could move only to the next or the previous page. Each page however had a link to the first page, and the first page had a link to the top page of each of the four general sections within the architecture. In this way the hypertext resembled a book-like structure, in that the user could start at a contents page, and move to the beginning of any chapter, and similarly from the middle of any chapter could jump back to the contents page again (Figure 3). The linear architecture comprised 66 links between pages. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] The hierarchical architecture was designed so a user could move from reading a page at one level, down to a page below it in the hierarchy, or back to a page above it in the hierarchy. In the hierarchical architecture, general concepts subsumed more detailed ones. Users could move up and down the hierarchy, exploring subordinate and superordinate relationships. However, no facility was provided for lateral moves (Figure 4). The hierarchical architecture comprised of 62 links. [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] The relational architecture was identical to the hierarchical architecture, in that users could move up or down the hierarchy. However, this structure also contained additional links, which meant that the user could move laterally lat·er·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or situated at or on the side. 2. Of or constituting a change within an organization or a hierarchy to a position at a similar level, as in salary or responsibility, to the one being left: to other locations within the architecture, related by subject matter (Figure 5). The relational architecture comprised of 62 links plus a further 32 lateral links. [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Assessment of Cognitive Style (Cognitive Styles Analysis Cognitive Styles Analysis (CSA) is the most frequently used computerized measure of cognitive styles. It was developed by Richard J. Riding. Although CSA is not well known in North American institutions, it is quite popular among European universities and organizations. ) (Riding, 1991) The Cognitive Styles Analysis is a computer presented test used to determine an individual's position on the wholist-analytic and verbaliser-imagery dimensions of cognitive style. It consists of three subtests. The first contains items relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc the verbaliser-imager cognitive style, the second set of items relates to the wholist dimension of cognitive style, and the third set of items relates to the analytic dimension of cognitive style. The test taker tak·er n. One that takes or takes up something, such as a wager or purchase: There were no takers on the bets. taker Noun is required to react by simply pressing either a "true" or "false" button in response to each question item. The computer then calculates an individual's position on each style dimension by comparing response times between the verbal and imagery items and the wholist and analytic items on the test. Scores on this test typically range between 0.5 and 2 for each cognitive style dimension. Procedure Participants were assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. to one of the three hypertext architecture conditions, and were permitted 10 minutes to read through the hypertext pages in any order they chose, provided that this reading order could be accommodated by the hypertext architecture to which they were assigned. They were then asked to write a short essay about a question, which could be answered from the information in the hypertext. Each essay was scored on two criteria. First, the level of detail each essay featured, which was rated by two judges according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. a predetermined pre·de·ter·mine v. pre·de·ter·mined, pre·de·ter·min·ing, pre·de·ter·mines v.tr. 1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: rubric RUBRIC, civil law. The title or inscription of any law or statute, because the copyists formerly drew and painted the title of laws and statutes rubro colore, in red letters. Ayl. Pand. B. 1, t. 8; Diet. do Juris. h.t. and which gave an indication of the quality of each essay. Second, essays were scored according to the number of words they contained, which gave an alternative more objective measure of the quality of the essay. Finally, participants completed questionnaires regarding their ease of using the hypertext. DATA ANALYSIS Cognitive style The wholist-analytic categories of wholist, intermediate and analytic were categorised Adj. 1. categorised - arranged into categories categorized classified - arranged into classes according to the following scores, < 1.02 wholist, 1.03 - 1.35 intermediate, >1.36 analytic. The verbaliser-imager categories of verbaliser, bimodal and imager were categorised as <0.98 verbaliser, 0.99 - 1.09 bimodal and >1.10 imager. These score boundaries are in accordance Accordance is Bible Study Software for Macintosh developed by OakTree Software, Inc.[] As well as a standalone program, it is the base software packaged by Zondervan in their Bible Study suites for Macintosh. with the standardisation Noun 1. standardisation - the condition in which a standard has been successfully established; "standardization of nuts and bolts had saved industry millions of dollars" standardization scores reported by Riding (1991). Essay scores Two judges scored the essays produced by participants according to the criteria of detail. Inter-rater reliability Inter-rater reliability, Inter-rater agreement, or Concordance is the degree of agreement among raters. It gives a score of how much , or consensus, there is in the ratings given by judges. between judges for scoring on level of detail was r = .79, p<.001. The mean score of the two judges was used as the final essay score. Essays were also scored for number of words used. The rationale for scoring the essays in this way was that these scoring methods represented two diverse methods of assessing the essays, one more subjective and the other more objective. Results Table 1 displays the means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for essay detail scores and number of words per essay for wholist, intermediate and analytic cognitive styles in the three architecture conditions of linear, hierarchical and relational and also the outcomes of a MANOVA MANOVA Multivariate Analysis of the Variance with cognitive style as a factor within architecture. For assessment of detail, a significant effect emerged within the relational architecture condition, F (2, 66) = 4.45, p<.01. Intermediates scored highest in this condition. Employing a Bonferroni post-hoc test, significant differences were found between the intermediates and analytics conditions (p<0.05). There were no significant differences between intermediates and wholists, or between analytics and wholists. Also for number of words a significant effect emerged within the relational architecture condition, F (2, 66) = 3.80, p< .05. Intermediates again scored highest in this condition. A Bonferroni posthoc test revealed significant differences between wholists and intermediates (p<0.05). There were no significant differences between wholists and analytics and intermediates and analytics. The MANOVA revealed no overall effects for cognitive style on detail scores and words per essay. Table 2 displays the means and standard deviations for essay detail scores and for number of words per essay for participants with verbaliser, bimodal, and imager cognitive styles in the three architecture conditions. It also presents the outcomes of a MANOVA with cognitive style as a factor embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. within architecture. For assessment of detail, a significant effect was found within the hierarchical architecture condition, F (2, 65) = 2.97, p< .05, with bimodals scoring highest. A Bonferroni post-hoc comparison however revealed that no significant differences were found between cognitive styles. A further significant effect was found for the number of words per essay. In the hierarchical condition F (2, 65) = 3.82, p< .05. Here again bimodals scored highest, although employing a Bonferroni posthoc comparison, no significant differences were found between any cognitive style, although differences between verbaliser and bimodal were approaching significance (p= .06). The MANOVA revealed no overall effects for cognitive style on detail scores and number of word scores. Table 3 displays the means and standard deviations for ease of use scores for participants with wholist, intermediate, and analytic cognitive styles in the three architecture conditions, linear, hierarchical, and relational. It also presents the outcomes of a MANOVA with cognitive style as a factor embedded within architecture. No significant effects are evident here, although an effect approaching significance can be observed in the hierarchical condition, with analytics reporting this architecture more difficult to use. Table 4 displays the means and standard deviations for ease of use scores for participants with verbaliser, bimodal, and imager cognitive styles in the three architecture conditions, linear, hierarchical, and relational. It also presents the outcomes of a MANOVA with cognitive style as a factor embedded within architecture. Again no significant effects are evident here, although an effect approaching significance can be observed in the hierarchical condition, with bimodals reporting this architecture easier to use. DISCUSSION The results from the present study go some way to suggesting that individuals possessing different cognitive styles learn more effectively from certain hypertext architectures. A significant interaction effect was observed in the relational architecture condition, where essay detail scores and number of words per essay was higher for individuals with an intermediate cognitive style than for analytics and wholist individuals. This finding may be interpreted as being due to the fact that intermediates would appear to possess the characteristics of both analytics and wholists which facilities their learning performance. In other words, intermediates benefit from having information segmented into parts, yet benefit from being able to derive an overview of the information content of the system, thus aiding their understanding of the structure of the hypertext. This is in accordance with the rationale proposed by Graff (2000). What is perplexing per·plex tr.v. per·plexed, per·plex·ing, per·plex·es 1. To confuse or trouble with uncertainty or doubt. See Synonyms at puzzle. 2. To make confusedly intricate; complicate. however, is why this result was only observed in the relational architecture condition. The questionnaire data revealed no differences in perceived ease of use between wholists, intermediates, and analytics in the relational architecture condition, therefore the differences in learning cannot be accounted for by differences in perceived ease of use between cognitive styles. One possible explanation is that the relational architecture condition provided a complex enough environment to discriminate dis·crim·i·nate v. dis·crim·i·nat·ed, dis·crim·i·nat·ing, dis·crim·i·nates v.intr. 1. a. between the scores of wholists, intermediates, and analytics, although this suggestion needs to be submitted to further research. In the hierarchical architecture condition a significant interaction effect was observed, where essay detail scores and number of words per essay was higher for individuals with a bimodal cognitive style than for verbalisers and imagers. As mentioned earlier, Paivio's (1971) dual-coding model suggested that individuals can exhibit the characteristics of verbalisers and imagers at the same time because verbal and imaginal information is processed by different cognitive subsystems. Therefore, their ability to work simultaneously with text-based media, and also their ability to use spatial and directional In one direction. Contrast with omnidirectional. information may account for the superiority of bimodals in this situation. Cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988, 1994) also provided some support for this dual coding explanation as follows. Two of the tasks a user needs to perform concurrently when using hypertext, are reading and understanding the contents of each page and also keeping track of their location within the hypertext document. Performing these tasks simultaneously requires a high degree of learner effort. It is possible that bimodals who can perform these tasks concurrently, suffer lower levels of cognitive load than either imagers or verbalisers, and consequently they are able to learn more effectively from hypertext. Again, what is more interesting is why this effect was evident only in the hierarchical condition. The questionnaire data revealed that bimodals reported that they found the hierarchical hypertext architecture easier to use than the verbalisers and imagers and this reported ease of use supports the idea of low cognitive load and also provides a possible explanation as to why the learning performance of bimodals was superior in this condition. The implications of the findings from this study suggest that the performance of individuals with different cognitive styles is superior in certain hypertext architectures. However, several other factors also need to be considered in future research. First, it is possible that individuals may engage differently with certain types of information depending on their cognitive styles. Tinajero and Paramo pa·ra·mo n. pl. pa·ra·mos A treeless alpine plateau of the Andes and tropical South America. [American Spanish páramo, from Spanish, wasteland.] (1997) suggested that individuals with different cognitive styles have different academic preferences. Therefore it is possible that a different type of information content in the hypertext may yield different results. Second, in this study, learning was measured by scoring essays for level of detail. It may also be prudent to consider other measures of learning in future studies. Furthermore, because users in this study were only given 10 minutes to read the hypertext, it is uncertain as to whether learning occurred on a deeper level. CONCLUSION The results from this study contribute to the knowledge base on the cognitive style construct and how cognitive style should be considered when constructing hypertext structures for instructional purposes. More specifically, the results suggest that certain hypertext architectures can be matched to the cognitive style of the user to facilitate more effective learning. This finding clearly has important implications for the design of e-learning systems as individuals would seem to benefit by using hypertext architectures designed to match their cognitive styles. Further work is however required to investigate different and deeper levels of learning in this context.
Table 1
Cognitive Style (Wholist, Intermediate, Analytic) Within Architecture
MANOVA for Detail Scores, and Number of Words per Essay (N= 74)
Wholist Intermediate Analytic F
Detail Linear 4.73 (1.84) 5.64 (1.64) 5.20 (1.98) <1.0
Hierarchical 5.69 (1.57) 4.93 (2.24) 4.21 (1.78) 1.36
Relational 5.08 (1.75) 6.84 (1.87) 4.22 (1.84) 4.45
Overall 5.18 (1.72) 5.89 (2.04) 4.46 (1.78) <1.0
Words Linear 5.90 (2.39) 6.43 (1.37) 6.84 (2.92) <1.0
Hierarchical 6.55 (2.10) 5.96 (2.83) 4.73 (2.77) 1.21
Relational 5.78 (2.02) 8.42 (2.59) 6.00 (2.08) 3.80
Overall 6.09 (2.14) 7.08 (2.571) 5.73 (2.54) 1.10
df P
Detail Linear 2, 66 0.58
Hierarchical 2, 66 0.26
Relational 2, 66 0.01 *
Overall 2, 66 0.70
Words Linear 2, 66 0.76
Hierarchical 2, 66 0.30
Relational 2, 66 0.02 *
Overall 2, 66 0.33
Table 2
Cognitive Style (Verbaliser Bimodal Imager) Within Architecture MANOVA
for Detail Scores, and Number of Words per Essay (N= 75)
Verbaliser Bimodal Imager F
Detail Linear 5.19 (1.68) 5.75 (1.41) 4.30 (2.17) <1.0
Hierarchical 4.31 (1.46) 6.05 (2.01) 4.30 (1.32) 2.97
Relational 6.37 (1.99) 5.78 (1.98) 4.47 (1.89) 2.55
Overall 5.36 (1.87) 5.90 (1.82) 4.37 (1.73) <1.0
Words Linear 6.56 (2.37) 6.58 (1.93) 5.36 (2.06) <1.0
Hierarchical 4.65 (1.48) 7.28 (2.65) 4.97 (2.08) 3.82
Relational 8.10 (2.89) 6.69 (2.09) 5.62 (2.09) 2.67
Overall 6.58 (2.66) 6.93 (2.26) 5.34 (2.00) 1.69
df p
Detail Linear 2, 66 0.38
Hierarchical 2, 66 0.05 *
Relational 2, 66 0.08
Overall 2, 66 0.42
Words Linear 2, 66 0.54
Hierarchical 2, 66 0.02 *
Relational 2, 66 0.07
Overall 2, 66 0.19
Table 3
Cognitive Style (Wholist Intermediate Analytic) Within Architecture
MANOVA for Ease of Use Scores (N= 90)
Wholist Intermediate Analytic F
Linear 13.42 (3.82) 14.50 (3.96) 13.60 (4.56) <1.0
Hierarchical 15.94 (3.49) 14.60 (4.35) 12.22 (4.29) 2.82
Relational 12.07 (3.81) 12.73 (2.53) 12.30 (2.95) <1.0
df p
Linear 2,81 0.81
Hierarchical 2,81 0.06
Relational 2,81 0.90
Table 4
Cognitive Style (Verbaliser Bimodal Imager) within Architecture MANOVA
for Ease of Use Scores (N= 90)
Verbaliser Bimodal Imager F df
Linear 12.64 (3.35) 15.63 (3.46) 13.50 (4.93) 1.55 2,81
Hierarchical 13.73 (5.35) 16.27 (3.45) 12.89 (2.52) 2.82 2,81
Relational 13.00 (2.83) 12.88 (3.94) 11.54 (2.93) <1.0 2,81
p
Linear 0.21
Hierarchical 0.06
Relational 0.58
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Two main approaches are matching words in the query against the database index (keyword searching) and traversing the database using hypertext or hypermedia links. . Human Factors, 34, 351-367. Packer, J., & Bain, J.D. (1978). Cognitive style and teacher-student compatibility. Journal of Educational Psychology, 70, 163-173. Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes VERBAL PROCESS. In Louisiana, by this term is understood a written account of any proceeding or operation required by law, signed by the person commissioned to perform the duty, and attested by the signature of witnesses. Vide Proces Verbal. . London: Holt holt n. Archaic A wood or grove; a copse. [Middle English, from Old English.] holt Noun the lair of an otter [from , Rinehart and Winston. Riding, R.J. (1991). Cognitive styles analysis user manual. Birmingham, UK: Learning and Training Technology. Riding, R.J., & Douglas, G. (1993). The effect of cognitive style and mode of presentation on learning performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 297-307. Riding, R.J., & Grimley, M. (1999). Cognitive style, gender and learning from multi-media materials in 11 year old children. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30, 42-56. Riding, R.J., & Mathias, D. (1991). Cognitive styles and preferred learning mode, reading attainment and cognitive ability in 11-year-old children. Educational Psychology, 11, 383-393. Riding, R J., & Watts, M. (1997). The effect of cognitive style on the preferred format of instructional material. Educational Psychology, 17(1&2) 179-183. Saracho, O.N., & Dayton, C.M. (1980). Relationship of teachers' cognitive styles to pupils academic gains. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 544-549. Satterly, D.J. (1976). Cognitive styles, spatial ability, and school achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(1), 36-42. Shapiro, A.M. (1998). Promoting active learning: The role of system structure in learning from hypertext. Human Computer Interaction, 13(1), 1-35. Sweller, J. (1988.) Cognitive load during problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. : Effects on learning. Cognitive Science cognitive science Interdisciplinary study that attempts to explain the cognitive processes of humans and some higher animals in terms of the manipulation of symbols using computational rules. , 12, 257-285. Sweller, J. (1994. Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty and instructional design Instructional design is the practice of arranging media (communication technology) and content to help learners and teachers transfer knowledge most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the current state of learner understanding, defining the end goal of . Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312 Tinajero, C., & Paramo, M.F. (1997). Field dependence and academic achievement: A re-examination RE-EXAMINATION. A second examination of a thing. A witness maybe reexamined, in a trial at law, in the discretion of the court, and this is seldom refused. In equity, it is a general rule that there can be no reexamination of a witness, after he has once signed his name to the deposition, of their relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 199-212. Tripp, S.D., & Roby, W. (1990). Orientation and disorientation disorientation /dis·or·i·en·ta·tion/ (-or?e-en-ta´shun) the loss of proper bearings, or a state of mental confusion as to time, place, or identity. in a hypertext lexicon. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 17, 120-124. Whalley, P. (1993). An alternative rhetoric for hypertext. In C. McKnight, A. Dillon, & J. Richardson (Eds.), Hypertext: A psychological perspective. Chichester, UK: Ellis ELLIS - EuLisp LInda System. An object-oriented Linda system written for EuLisp. "Using Object-Oriented Mechanisms to Describe Linda", P. Broadbery <pab@maths.bath.ac.uk> et al, in Linda-Like Systems and Their Implementation, G. Wilson ed, U Edinburgh TR 91-13, 1991. Horwood. MARTIN GRAFF University of Glamorgan The University of Glamorgan (Welsh: Prifysgol Morgannwg) is a university in Glamorgan, Wales with campuses in Trefforest, Glyntaff, Merthyr Tydfil and Cardiff. History , Wales Wales, Welsh Cymru, western peninsula and political division (principality) of Great Britain (1991 pop. 2,798,200), 8,016 sq mi (20,761 sq km), west of England; politically united with England since 1536. The capital is Cardiff. , UK mgraff@glam.ac.uk |
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