Asking young children to tell the story.

Before children learn to read and write, they are already making up and acting out little adventures. Although much of the dramatic play of 3- to 6-year-olds reflects straightforward imitations of home life, their play themes are by no means limited to such reality. On any given day in the classroom, children might be preparing a meal in the housekeeping area or scaring away grizzly bears at a makeshift campsite.

Television, picture books, field trips and influential adults provide young children with material for the scripts and stories of play. By the time children's dramatic play reaches its highest level of development, it has evolved into a cooperative multidimensional activity that produces interrelated action sequences and highly imaginative themes (Christie, 1991). A play session in which four children attempt to scare away a make-believe bear from their imaginary campsite illustrates this concept well as numerous interlinking actions and dialogues occur.

In some important respects, the fantasy and sociodramatic play of children can be viewed as a precursor to oral storytelling and story writing (Crowie, 1984; Galda, 1984). Narrative action structures embedded in sustained dramatic play frequently contain imaginary roles and events, similar to those found in children's early spoken and written stories (Heath, 1982; Sachs, Goldman & Chaille, 1985).

The verbal exchanges that accompany pretend play expose children to other views of the world and help them grasp the social and affective functions of narrative processes (Wolf, 1993). The following conversation from the campsite play session demonstrates how playmates learn from each other as they share their attitudes, habits and family lifestyles:

"If I eat these hot dogs without mustard, they won't be any good. My mom never lets us eat hot dogs for dinner, only for lunch. They cook real fast so we get to eat a lot of them."

"My dad hates hot dogs and my mom won't cook them."

Verbal exchanges of this nature provide children with opportunities to create text through play and to convey social mores that will eventually help them to comprehend written texts (Pellegrini, DeStefano & Thompson, 1983).

Research indicates that children must experience many types of dramatic play and storytelling to reach optimal language and literacy development. The responsibility for storytelling was once restricted to the teacher's domain. Renewed attention on developmentally appropriate practices, however, has shifted the responsibility to include the child. Children are now being asked to tell their own stories, including original make-believe versions and retellings of old favorites. Teachers are exploring ways to incorporate children's experiential background when guiding children to verbalize stories.

One instructional approach, the focus of this article, encourages teachers to guide children in narrating stories based on actual or imagined experiences, particularly those that transpire in the classroom. The authors discuss ways of incorporating events from dramatic play and everyday occurrences into storytelling activities. Story samplers exemplify the techniques that teachers can use to help young learners reconstruct narratives based on real experiences.

Story Samplers

Early childhood centers contain abundant raw material for framing stories. During children's natural extended conversations, they often exchange ideas and anecdotes. These real opportunities furnish ideas for interesting stories in which children order their thoughts and make sense of their classroom experiences. The following four story samplers depict diverse types of interaction found in large groups, small groups, partnerships and individual formats. An explanation of the classroom activity or story source provides the background.

Spontaneous Experience Story Starter (Large Group)

Many whole group opportunities can be transformed into stories. Teachers can capitalize upon extemporary circumstances as they develop. Losing electricity in the classroom, for example, can be a scary experience for young children and a chaotic one for teachers. But teachers can turn the experience into a creative one by suggesting to the children that they transform the darkness into something fun, like outer space.

Exploring the Moon. When the lights go out, gather the children and give them flashlights. Explain that they are astronauts who have just landed on the moon. Encourage them to explore the moon's surface. They may want to venture into the room to search for rocks, plants and people. Some children might pretend to get their feet stuck in craters and can then request the assistance of others. The children can speak to one another with pretend speaker devices. Next, the children might encounter some other life form. Ask them to try to communicate with it. Other youngsters may enjoy building a spaceship.

Modes of Responding. In order to guide the children in verbalizing a story line based on a classroom experience, the teacher will need to bring the group together. The activity, in this case the space adventure, could be recreated through joint participation in which the children talk about the individual roles they played. Through careful teacher guidance and practice, the children will learn to produce a consistent story structure--possessing a definite beginning, middle and ending. They will develop a set of characters and sequence of events, resolve problems and conclude with a satisfying final statement.

The teacher could expand on other story ideas by describing, for example, a huge cave set off in the distance. The class could imagine they are exploring the cave and then discuss what they found. Subsequent story sessions could center on having the children pretend to enter a spaceship. The teacher could initiate discussion about the spaceship's destination, equipment and leader. The goal is to help children create opportunities for elaborate language and to employ imagination and creativity.

Thematic-based Story Starter (Small Group)

Many thematic-based dramatic play centers are located in early childhood centers. Teachers choose a theme, design space to accommodate a small number of children and provide materials to recreate typical community settings such as post offices, grocery stores, doctors' offices or banks. Other centers might represent farmers' markets, art studios and camping sites.

The following small-group, child-initiated play session occurred in a dramatic play center representing a campsite. Theme-related props included backpacks, assorted plastic food, plates and utensils, binoculars, compasses, flashlights, water bottles and a first aid kit. While major accessories, such as a pup tent or small logs, are not necessary, they do provide a real-life dimension and were used in this example.

Going Camping. One preschool class conducted a pretend camping expedition. John and Jaret gathered blocks and carried them to the tent site in order to build a pretend fire. Tyeesha and Tiffany, perched on a nearby log, pulled plates and utensils from their backpacks. The children cooked hot dogs for their appreciative fellow campers. Within moments, all four children scrambled into the tent to hide from approaching "bears." John, playing the bear, lumbered around the campsite, growling and scratching at the firewood. The campers in the tent used flashlights to scare away the intruder. Pleas to "turn out the lights" echoed from the tent. The supportive classroom teacher obliged and darkness filled the room. John, moving from one hiding place to another, attempted to evade the light.

The action continued, amidst giggles and intense verbal exchanges, until the teacher gave a warning announcing the arrival of daybreak. "Here comes the sun," she said, turning on the lights. The intense dramatic play continued for a while longer, diminished as clean-up time approached and terminated once the children settled into the storytelling corner.

Modes of Responding. A simple retelling of the "bear's" visit to the campsite, preferably on the same day as the activity, fosters a high level of storytelling engagement. The participants' names could be inserted into the storytelling to create a personal effect. On another day, the class could use visual aids to extend their imaginative adventures. A special puppet or a significant prop could stimulate discussion.

Although there is no right or wrong way to start a storytelling session, the teacher could begin by displaying a skunk puppet and suggesting the class make up a story about another uninvited visitor to the campsite. Two or three follow-up questions could help initiate the storytelling: "What name shall we give the skunk?" "What kind of trouble might this skunk create?" and "What do you think scares a skunk?" The teacher could even develop the initial narration: "Charlie lived with three other skunks in a hollowed-out tree in the woods. He was curious by nature and loved to explore new areas." Pausing for suggestions from the children will make the story belong to the class. After the story, a small group of children may act out portions of the tale.

Pure Fantasy Story Starter (Partnerships)

Watching pairs of children at play can also provide story ideas. The following experience occurred right outside the playground door.

Blowing Bubbles. Lauren and Lindsey were blowing bubbles, using wands of various sizes to create a multitude of different bubbles. As the bubbles floated on the breeze, catching the sunshine, they inspired conversation. Sometimes the bubbles would pop on a tree, leaving a soapy residue on the bark. Or they would pop against a child, causing him to touch the spot where the bubble landed. The girls enjoyed creating and playing with the bubbles. A competition developed over who could blow the most or the biggest bubbles.

Modes of Responding. Teachers should consciously observe partnerships at play. Play episodes involving pairs of children contain meaningful contexts for story making. Since such occurrences generally are not overly eventful, they might not readily attract the attention of a teacher. Thus, their potential as stories tends to be overlooked.

To help develop imaginary story lines using the above experience, the teacher might ask the children how small they would have to be to fit into a bubble. The children could describe where they would go if blown away by the wind. They could pretend to look for camels in the desert, dolphins in the sea and lions in the jungle. The teacher could describe what children in Mexico or Alaska might be wearing. A storm could endanger the voyage and the children could share their thoughts about how they would return home.

This theme--leaving a familiar environment for a remote place, experiencing adventures along the way--is found in many children's books. Thus, such storytelling episodes are perfect opportunities to explore children's literature. The class could discuss books such as The Snowman by Raymond Briggs (1978), Where the Wild Things Are by Maurice Sendak (1963) and Bubble Bubble by Mercer Mayer (1992).

Conversational Story Starter (Individual)

Seemingly ordinary conversations often contain seeds for future storytelling activities. The following example illustrates how a child's one-on-one dialogue with his teacher could become an exciting narrative.

Escaping Reality. One cold winter day, Adam collected all the play money from the various board games in the classroom. He brought the bills to his teacher and asked how much he would have if the money were real. The teacher explained that he would have a fortune and asked him what he would do with it. Without hesitation, Adam expressed a strong desire to buy a house in Hawaii.

Adam's idea became a starting point for an enjoyable escape from the cold and dark afternoon. The two imagined what it would be like to live in Hawaii. Adam, who had recently seen photos of Hawaii, had many mental images of beaches, hula dancers and volcanoes. He expressed a desire to fly above a volcano to see the lava. The teacher imagined making footprints in the wet sand and snorkeling next to brightly-colored fish in the warm, blue waters. Both wanted to ride in a glass-bottom boat, and they discussed the creatures they might see.

Modes of Responding. Verbal exchanges between teacher and child can readily become part of a group storytelling session. After the first child retells his story, other children could offer their own ideas about their imaginary visits to a tropical island. Or, for variety, the teacher could collect artifacts as story aids. A beach bag filled with thematic items--sea shells, coral, driftwood, replicas of tropical fish and model ships--could be placed on the floor in the middle of the story circle. The children could use these objects as stimuli for a story. After a few initial verbal contributions, another child could continue the narration. Playing environmental music (e.g., the sounds of waves or traditional Hawaiian music) adds an interesting effect to the activity.

Sustaining Storytelling in Center-based Settings

Several managerial and instructional strategies will enhance the teacher's ability to incorporate events from dramatic play into storytelling sessions. To do this successfully, especially on a long-term basis, teachers should consider several support mechanisms. An established routine should include time for free play, center-based activity and informal child-child or child-adult interactions that may inspire future storytelling sessions. An adequate adult-child ratio will give teachers ample time to observe children playing and interacting. An observant teacher can mentally log interesting and entertaining incidents from various contexts for use during storytelling. Children's memories and imagination will fill in any gaps.

Opportunities to engage children in storytelling must be carefully planned. The great challenge for teachers lies in creating environments that encourage genuine sharing. A collaborative atmosphere in which everyone sits around the story circle and feels part of the storytelling experience is important. Provide pillows or mats and encourage children to assume a comfortable position. The children need to feel comfortable listening and responding to each other's answers without feeling they are being evaluated. A teacher's voice, demeanor and body language help create a receptive audience. An enthusiastic and sincerely motivated teacher will likely generate storytelling success.

The initial session may need to draw on an activity shared by the entire class. Teachers should activate the story process by providing the point of reference (i.e., the starting place from which other events follow). A child who was an active participant in the event could recount the experience. If important events are omitted, the teacher can pose questions or offer statements that prompt the storyteller to include missing elements or to clarify information.

As children grow experienced in storytelling, the teacher can move them away from recounting a chain of events in chronological order. Several storytelling options can add interest and variety. The story's time span could be extended and the characters can encounter more elaborate and detailed contexts. Another option is to create a plausible condition with events that might have occurred, but in reality have not. Children can be encouraged to tell fantasized accounts or recombine real events. The purpose is to extend children's thinking beyond firsthand participation into new and uncharted territory.

With additional practice, children have increased opportunities to acquire and understand narratives. It is not critical, certainly not in the early practice sessions or with very young children, to address all parts of a carefully constructed story. By age 5, children generally can tell entertaining stories that contain most components specified in story grammar (Applebee, 1978). They are capable of beginning with a setting, building a problem to be solved, describing a goal or solution and providing an ending. References to inner feelings or motives generally come at a later stage of development, although they may be introduced to some 5-year-old children.

If problems or conflicts are evident in the story line, the teacher can carefully provide a resolution. If a resolution is not part of the play scenario, one can be constructed. For example, the teacher could help end the camping story by simply stating, "And the bear ran off into the woods, never to be seen again."

Inviting children's comments and respecting their ideas not only helps to improve language fluency, but also gives them ownership in the process. The storytelling event, the stimulus upon which the story is based, does not have to be a one-time occurrence; different versions could be played out over a period of time. Additional children's contributions could be incorporated to recast and reshape an earlier story, providing new perspectives for all participants.

Time is not always available to focus on children's actions, verbalizations and the little scripts that unfold during the day. Therefore, the class may need to call upon alternative sources. Children's literature or traditional stories can be used when teachers are unable to capture the essence of a play session or when the children's contributions are not forthcoming. A variety of storytelling sources ensures a dynamic influx of new ideas, keeps storytime fresh and feeds new material back into the children's play.

Discussion

Teachers adhere to developmentally appropriate practices when they guide children in narrating stories based on actual or imagined experiences. Furthermore, such stories involve more creativity than merely mimicking or imitating a model. Holistic comprehension also prevails when children contribute to and expand a story, rather than responding to piecemeal literal questions.

Affective and cognitive domains accrue certain benefits. Teachers enjoy playful and conversational exchanges that build a wholesome relationship between themselves and the children. They find fresh opportunities to place value on children's play and accompanying verbal exchanges. Teaching satisfaction is heightened when one respects children's ideas, learns what the children are thinking and helps extend their narrative skills.

Storytelling may serve as a bridge to reading and to more developed play. The activity can be a rich source of plots, characters and ideas, elements that will be incorporated into future stories or pretend play. The emphasis on active participation allows children to reenact and test behaviors, skills and thinking processes that support early reading development.

References

Applebee, A. N. (1978). The child's concept of story: Ages two to seventeen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Briggs, R. (1978). The snowman. New York: Random House.

Christie, J. F. (1991). Psychological research on play: Connections with early literacy development. In J. F. Christie (Ed.), Play and early literacy development (pp. 27-43). Albany, NY: State University of New York.

Crowie, H. (1984). The value of imaginative writing. In H. Crowie (Ed.), The development of children's imaginative writing (pp. 49-68). London: Croom Helm.

Galda, L. (1984). Narrative competence: Play, storytelling, and comprehension. In A. Pellegrini & T. Yawkey (Eds.), The development of oral and written language in social contexts (pp. 105-117). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Heath, S. B. (1982). What no bedtime story means: Narrative skills at home and school. Language in Society, 11, 49-76.

Mayer, M. (1992). Bubble bubble. Roxbury, CT: Rain Bird Prods.

Pellegrini, A. D., DeStefano, J. S., & Thompson, D. L. (1983). Saying what you mean: Using play to teach "literate language." Language Arts, 60, 380-384.

Sachs, J., Goldman, J., & Chaille, C. (1985). Narratives in preschoolers' sociodramatic play: The role of knowledge and communicative competence. In L. Galda & A. D. Pellegrini (Eds.), Play, language and stories: The development of children's literate behavior (pp. 45-61). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Sendak, M. (1963). Where the wild things are. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.

Wolf, D.P. (1993). There and then, intangible and internal: Narratives in early childhood. In B. Spodek (Ed.), Handbook on research on the education of young children (pp. 42-56). New York: Macmillan.

Cathleen S. Soundy is Associate Professor, College of Education, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Margaret Humadi Genisio is Assistant Professor, Department of Reading, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh.