Asian shades of spirituality: implications for multicultural school counseling.

In many cases, Asian students can be better served by understanding the spiritual aspects of Asian spiritual and religious traditions. Three specific traditions are outlined in this article: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. Each tradition is described and a case example that illustrates working with students of these traditions is provided.

In the current practice of school counseling, little consideration is given to the spiritual background of students of Asian cultures. Although there is a body of literature on Asian culture in counseling, we could find remarkably few articles pertaining to counseling students in the context of Asian religious and spiritual traditions. In many cases, understanding these traditions can be of immense help in establishing relationships with these students. If the student is from an Asian family strongly dedicated to their religious tradition, we have found that demonstrating understanding and empathy toward that tradition can provide a powerful invitation to trust the counselor. The importance of establishing a relationship in counseling is well-known and well-documented in the literature (e.g., Orlinsky, Grawe, & Parks, 1994; Sexton & Whiston, 1994). Spirituality is often overlooked as a way of strengthening the counseling relationship and engendering trust.

We have also found that knowledge of Asian religion and spirituality can be extraordinarily effective in establishing trust with Asian parents. When a counselor can demonstrate some depth of knowledge of an Asian parent's religious tradition, the degree of trust generated can be deeper and even more inspired than what results from a counselor's understanding of culture. There is no question that multiculturalism is a crucial and important aspect of counseling. The wisdom of a counselor can cross cultural barriers and be the primary catalyst for establishing relationships (Hanna, Bemak, & Chung, 1999; Hanna, Talley, & Guindon, 2000). Part and parcel of this wisdom is how to apply a working understanding of the student and the family's spirituality to effective counseling. That understanding provides knowledge of the client's primary values which can then be aligned to counseling (Hanna, 2002). This article is intended to elucidate the central aspects of several Asian religious and spiritual traditions and relate this knowledge to counseling students. Specifically, we describe and discuss Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam. At the end of each section we provide a case example in which the respective spirituality played a part in helping a student.

HINDUISM

Hinduism originated in India and is the oldest of the major religions on earth, being well over 3,000 years old. Interestingly, it is not a religion that seeks converts, as does Christianity or Islam. Practitioners are usually from India or are of Indian descent. Like Christianity, however, there are many individual sects and belief frameworks in Hinduism, and our necessarily brief description of it here will address it only in general terms.

Hinduism includes a pantheon of deities. This often appears strange to people raised in Western countries, where monotheism is often a religious given, but in many ways, it is not so different at all from Western faiths and traditions. As many are aware, Hinduism is pantheistic, and this also appears to be different. But the difference between monotheism and Hindu pantheism can be easily summarized. The God of Christianity, according to the Bible, created the world out of nothing. Hindu scriptures such as the Upanishads (Nikhilananda, 1963) and the Yoga Vasistha (Venkatesananda, 1984) inform us that Brahman or God, created the world out of its own being. Thus, it is only this seemingly insignificant variant that turns out to be the crux of the difference between pantheism and monotheism.

In essence, there is little difference between these theologies, as the act of creation of the universe is involved in both. The Judaic, Christian, or Islamic God, in creating the world out of nothing, leads to a belief in monotheism, which involves a belief in a dualism of the one God and the created world. Brahman, in creating the world out of itself, leads to a monistic formulation of pantheism in that there is ultimately only one "substance" and that is Brahman. The difference, however minor, does have some rather important consequences. For example, morality in Hinduism is not based on the dictates of a deity, but on the well-known idea of "karma" which literally means action. If people produce good actions, then good will return to them, either in this life or the next, as Hinduism also holds a strong belief in reincarnation. Another important consequence is with regard to Hindu metaphysics. Specifically, all of the gods of Hinduism, all human beings, all animals, and all things are simply manifestations of Brahman, the ultimate reality.

Like the Christian trinity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, there is a trinity in Hinduism as well. Among the many deities, such as Agni, the god of fire, and Ratri, the goddess of night, there are three who are of major power and significance. These three are Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver or "maintainer"), and Shiva (the destroyer), and together they form a distinct divine trinity representing tremendous power. Brahma having completed his work of creating the universe is not a focus of worship or devotion as are Vishnu and Shiva. Shiva, for example, is the god of those who practice Yoga and seek spiritual enlightenment, although many followers of Vishnu seek the same. What is not often understood however, is that these deities, powerful as they may be, are also mere manifestations of Brahman, just like all aspects of the universe.

The core of Hindu spirituality lies in the realization that one's own individual identity is ultimately that of Brahman. All multiplicity is considered to be illusion, or maya. Individual personhood is also considered to be illusion, and the aim of spiritual practice is to transcend one's individual ego, or atma, and directly and experientially realize one's true identity as being one with all of existence, as Brahman. Thus, Hindu spirituality, as opposed to its Western counterpart, places more significance on the global whole than on individuality. It is important to understand that the roots of this perspective are based not on a belief but on an actual experiential insight of profound spiritual depth and consequence. This view is not far removed from ideas found in Western philosophers such as Spinoza (1678/1976), and the neoplatonist Greek philosopher, Plotinus (O'Brien, 1975). It is also not tar removed from ideas from Western psychological theorists such as Adler (Ansbache & Ansbacher, 1956, 1979) and Bateson (1979), whose ideas were influential on family therapy. In Hinduism, this realization of oneness with Brahman and thus, the entire universe, leads to the ultimate stage of human development. Hinduism is rich with individual teachers such as the eighth century philosopher and sage Shankara (Mayeda, 1992), who provided fresh and penetrating insights into the ancient scriptures. He described Brahman as consisting of three qualities--being (sat), consciousness (chit), and bliss (ananda).

The practice of Hinduism, aside from those practices associated with making ritualistic offerings to various deities, is generally categorized under the heading of Yoga. Although Yoga is commonly thought of as a series of physical postures, called asanas, it is far more psychological in its nature and intent (Aranya, 1983), and there are many schools of Yoga. The actual purpose of Yoga is to serve as a vehicle for the practitioner to become enlightened through the realization of Brahman. The various physical postures are actually a minor aspect of this spiritual practice. Meditation is generally considered an essential practice in the accomplishment of this spiritual goal. Meditation comes in many styles and methods, and it often varies according to the many traditions under the general Hindu umbrella. Nevertheless, Hindus believe that meditation in itself produces positive karma, and that it calms anxieties, relieves depression, and provides deep spiritual attainment and fulfillment. Ultimately, the goal is spiritual liberation, or moksha, from the need to reincarnate.

Many, if not most, Hindu families have a spiritual teacher, or guru, who serves as a spiritual guide for the development of his or her devotees. The guru is also sought for advice and guidance quite in addition to matters of the spirit, and often functions in a role roughly similar to that of a counselor, although with much authoritative power. The Hindu tradition also possesses its own brand of astrology, and it is not uncommon for people of Hindu background to place considerable faith in this practice.

Case Example: Hinduism

When counseling a student from a Hindu tradition, it may be a good idea for a counselor to inquire as to whether or not he or she is devoted to that tradition, and to what degree. A counselor can also do the same with a polite inquiry into the spiritual disposition of Hindu parents. The following case example is that of Vijay, a Hindu high school sophomore who was found to have a problem fitting in with his fellow students. He was experiencing anxiety due to alienation and lack of acceptance by his peers.

A conversation with his mother revealed that she was quite worried about her son, and sensed that he was experiencing anxiety, even though he refused to speak with her about it. She said that her family had been in America for 3 years, and they were still having difficulty adjusting. She added, with a worried tone, that Vijay's father did not seem to be concerned about his son's problems. The counselor casually mentioned that he had great respect for Hindu spirituality, and Vijay's mother promptly asserted her deep and devout feelings about her religion. When the counselor asked if Vijay was also dedicated to her beliefs, she regretfully replied that he seemed to be far more interested in video games and MTV. At this point, Vijay's mother asked the counselor how much he knew about Hindu tradition. She was very pleased when he mentioned having studied a variety of ancient texts sacred to Hinduism such as the Bhagavad Gita (Prabhavanda & Isherwood, 1951), the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (Aranya, 1983), and various books on the philosophy of Vedanta (for example, Gupta, 1998). The counselor added that he had practiced several forms of meditation.

Recognizing an opportunity, the counselor then respectfully requested permission of the mother to teach Vijay one of the meditation techniques described in an ancient text called the Svetasvatara Upanishad (Nikhilananda , 1963). The technique makes use of the ancient symbol, OM, which is a mantra repeated in meditation, and is the symbol of Brahman. This particular style of meditation is common and has received considerable research support for many years (e.g., Benson, 1975). Vijay's mother enthusiastically agreed. The counselor explained the technique to Vijay saying that it was a highly respected aspect of Hindu culture but that it was also practiced by many American movie stars. He agreed to try it and soon reported a decrease in his anxiety. This also opened the door to several additional counseling approaches to his difficulties, including getting him involved in a group with other students who also felt alienated. In this way, his mother was quite happy to see her son reconnect to his school and his spiritual heritage, and fully supported the efforts of the counselor.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha, who became known as the Buddha approximately 2,500 years ago. He was born into a Hindu family and studied and practiced in the Hindu tradition for approximately 6 years before embarking on an autonomous spiritual quest that resulted in a remarkable degree of insight into human nature and liberation. The title of Buddha is generally understood to mean "Enlightened One." A remarkably creative and insightful individual, he took it upon himself to discover techniques that could bring an end to human suffering and produce a state of serene liberation called nirvana. Nirvana is not a "heaven" style concept but an experiential state of profoundly enhanced awareness and understanding of the human predicament. The Buddha placed little stock in faith and belief and promoted experiential self-discovery and self-knowledge through proactive practice of meditation (Rahula, 1978). The essence of Buddhist spirituality can be found in what the Buddha called the Four Noble Truths. They are listed below.

1. Life is filled with tension and anxiety.

2. Desire or craving is the cause of tension and anxiety.

3. The ceasing of desire and craving leads to the end of tension and anxiety.

4. The way to bring about the end of tension and anxiety is through the practice of the Eightfold Path which leads to nirvana.

The Eightfold path involves methods of mindfulness and concentrative meditation and also includes changing beliefs. In fact, it is well-documented that Buddhist monks were practicing, 2,500 years ago, many of the same techniques that the counseling profession considers to be its most advanced (De Silva, 1984, 1985; Mikulas, 1978, 1981). This includes desensitization, flooding, modifying beliefs, thought stopping, self-monitoring, and imagery techniques. Nirvana, the goal of Buddhist practice, is a state of no tension, anxiety, or psychological suffering, that is, serenity. It is the complete psychospiritual triumph over the selfish ego and the realization of one's true spiritual nature. As in the case of Hinduism, nirvana also represents being liberated from having to experience reincarnation. There are many treatises on nirvana and mental states in Buddhism, some of which contain remarkable depth of insight (e.g., Nanamoli, 1975). There have also been many books that compare and discuss the many similarities between Buddhist ideas and contemporary counseling and psychotherapy (e.g., Kornfield, 1993; Sweet & Johnson, 1990; Welwood, 2000).

The elder school of Buddhism, called Theravada, taught that the Buddha discouraged the use of rituals and did not speak of a God. He emphasized the practice of meditation as the key to liberation from the anxieties and problems that habitually plague human beings. He also taught that the self is illusory, and his argument was similar to that of David Hume (1739/1978), British philosopher, and William James (1904/1977; see also, Kalupahana, 1987). Like Hinduism, morality is based on the idea of karma and reincarnation. Buddha's message spread across Asia like a wildfire and it became subtly changed as it encountered various cultures. Tibetan Buddhism, Chinese Buddhism, Zen, and Northern Indian Mahayana Buddhism are all examples of different sects that fall under the general umbrella of Buddhism (Radhakrishnan & Moore, 1957). Buddhism can currently be found in its various forms in Asian countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, Burma, Bhutan, and China.

Case Example: Buddhism

Buddhist people tend to be tolerant and nonviolent, although there are exceptions, of course. The fop lowing case example is of Jimmy, a 15-year-old boy born in Thailand and brought to America when he was 6 by his adoptive Western parents. His Asian origins were clearly evident in his appearance. Jimmy had been convicted of a drug offense and at the time of this story was in an adolescent treatment program for criminal offenders. An alternative school was attached to the program. His American parents habitually refused to come to any counseling sessions, and this troubled Jimmy although he would pretend not to care. Although small in stature, Jimmy was inclined to fight at any sign of disrespect by his peers.

In his first encounter with the counselor, Jimmy made it clear that he did not need any counseling and responded to probes with apathy and disinterest. Signs of depression were clear. Using strategies designed to establish a relationship with defiant adolescents (Hanna, Hanna, & Keys, 1999), the counselor began to engage Jimmy in conversation. Knowing that he was Thai by birth, the counselor asked if he was interested in Thailand at all. Jimmy responded that he didn't care about Thailand, and that his parents had always told him that he lived in America now and Thailand was not important in his new life. When the counselor remarked that he had been to Thailand several times, the boy's interest surged in spite of himself, and he asked what it was like there. The counselor related to him the many wonderful and fascinating aspects of the culture, cities, and countryside of Thailand, and asked him if he would like to have a picture book of Thailand. Jimmy was highly interested, and the counselor soon shared it with him, turning the pages and explaining various aspects of the culture as well as the many Buddhist temples pictured in the book. Jimmy showed a new fascination that was uncharacteristic of his documented behaviors. The counselor then mentioned, in words that Jimmy could understand, that Thai people valued calmness and poise as opposed to anger, and that they were devoted to a religion called Buddhism. This religion, he explained, was a way of developing good feelings about life and one's self. Curiously, Jimmy replied that he had never heard of Buddhism, and that his adoptive parents never discussed religion with him at all. When asked if he would like to learn about Buddhism and some of its practices, he responded with a smile and an immediate yes.

Jimmy was taught walking meditation (Hahn, 1991) and, additionally, mindful awareness exercises, aimed at observing and monitoring his impulses directly related to anger outbursts (see Hanna & Hunt, 1999). These exercises were also aimed at reducing stress and anxiety stemming from feelings of alienation and hurt that he had had as long as he could remember. The counselor not only taught the techniques but actually meditated with Jimmy, and he watched as Jimmy, over a period of 4 weeks, slowly changed his behavior. Curiously, his parents did not seem to mind any of this and were asked to encourage his interest in Thai culture and its spirituality, which they did. They were happy to see progress being made, although they still did not attend his family sessions, apparently because of the stress he had caused them. Nevertheless, as a result of this approach, Jimmy reported that he felt like he was beginning to understand himself and like himself. His symptoms of anger and alienation reduced as he began to accept and take pride in his background and spirituality.

A question for a school counselors to ask themselves with regard to a student connected to Buddhist spirituality might be along these lines: "How can I align the problem of this particular student with Buddhist spirituality, so that the desired change in behavior, attitude, or goal can be established?"

ISLAM

Islam was founded in what is now Saudi Arabia by the Prophet Muhammad in the years spanning from 610 to 632. It is estimated that there are approximately one billion followers of Islam, or Muslims, in the world today. The term islam is an Arabic word that literally means "surrender" (Armstrong, 2000). However, as a religious term, Islam specifically means "surrender to the will of Allah," the monotheistic deity of Islam. This surrender involves acknowledging and resigning oneself to the fact that all events in the world are merely Allah's will. A Muslim is one who thus surrenders to the will of Allah. In fact, the universe and nature itself is believed to be Muslim in this sense, because the universe and nature obey the laws and will of Allah, which is ingrained into the structure of all creation. The act of spiritual surrender is an ancient and powerful spiritual principle found even in pre-Hindu shamanistic societies dating into prehistory (Eliade, 1964; Harrier, 1990).

According to the teachings, Islam is the primordial and universal religion--the final word of God--as it has reached perfection. Religions such as Judaism and Christianity, are considered to be early, inauthentic versions of truth, that finally reached their pinnacle of perfection in the message of the Prophet Muhammad, the last Prophet of God, whose teachings are found in the holy book called the Koran, or Qur'an (Ali, 1934; Pickthall, 1930). The Qur'an is, of course, the primary text of Islam. It is believed by Muslims to be the infallible word of Allah, and that Allah's words were relayed to Muhammad by the angel of revelation, Gabriel. The commonly held notion that Allah is merely a recasting of the Judaic or Christian God is mistaken, as the Islamic concept of Allah, although influenced by Judaic and Christian monotheism, was nevertheless indigenous to Arabian culture (Farah, 2003). The Qur'an also clearly denies that there was ever any Son of God in any form, Christian or otherwise.

The Qur'an advocates a deep and abiding spirituality by emphasizing the surrendering of pride and ego to God, and sharing with the poor. It also advocates the development of Islamic spiritually oriented communities based on the teachings of the Qur'an, and these are highly valued and even held in awe by Muslims (Armstrong, 2000), who view them as holy and sacred. This can be true, even when such communities become destructive, as in the case of the recent Taliban regime in Afghanistan. It should also be noted that the Sufi sect of Islam (Shah, 1968) penetrates to extraordinary depths of spirituality, and there are many parallels of Sufi spirituality with Christian and Hindu mysticism (Happold, 1967). Sufism is based on direct communion with God based on love and contains far fewer elements of fear and formalism found in other Islamic quarters.

There are five cardinal duties to which all Muslims must adhere. These are known as the "Pillars of Islam." We list them below, as they are of central importance in understanding of Islam (Lippman, 1995), and most Muslims understandably prefer that their counselors have an understanding of their faith (Kelly, Aridi, & Bakhtiar, 1996).

1. Profession of Faith. This amounts to public declaration of the fundamental truth of Islam that: "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet."

2. Prayer. All Muslims must observe the five daily prayers. In prayer, Muslims must face the Kaaba, which is the central shrine of Islam found in Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Whenever possible, these prayers should be offered with other Muslims.

3. Almsgiving. Although once mandatory, this is now a voluntary act of charity and an essential obligation to give of one's wealth to the poor and needy.

4. Fasting. Muslims are required to fast during the holy month of Ramadan. This means that eating, drinking, smoking, and sexual activity is prohibited from dawn to sunset, and all sinful thoughts must be refrained from as well.

5. Pilgrimage to Mecca. Every adult Muslim, who is physically and economically able, is required to make a pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca at least once, and perform the appropriate rituals there.

The general belief among Muslims is that if they perform benevolent acts, follow Islamic law, or sharia, and show abiding faith in the teachings of the Qur'an, they will be rewarded on earth with a happy life (in surah 16:97). When these do not result, Muslims will often question whether they have been faithful in their actions and true to the teachings(Armstrong, 2000). This is a powerful belief among Muslims and often can be approached as an avenue in counseling.

At the risk of stepping out of the bounds of political correctness, it is important that we address an issue central to counseling in the context of Islamic spirituality. Our concern is with the issue of how women are viewed in the Qur'an. This is a controversial topic but must not be avoided simply because it is uncomfortable or difficult.

Lippman (1995) boldly stated that, "The Qur'an repeatedly belittles women" (p. 96). However, this is by today's standards, and it should be noted that Islam made enormous strides toward improving the conditions of women during the time of Muhammad. Perhaps it is more accurate to say that the Qur'an is highly ambivalent about women. For example, in the chapter on women it praises women on the one hand as being equal to men in the eyes of Allah, and deserving of fair treatment, but on the other hand it specifically states (in surah 4:34) that a man has the right to beat his wife if there is fear that she is disloyal or ill-behaved (Ali, 1934, p. 50). This ambivalence toward women was readily observed by the first author while traveling in many Islamic cultures. The same ambivalence can also be observed among certain Islamic male students and fathers who have acquired a negative regard toward females, whether as teachers, counselors, school administrators, mothers, or sisters. As mentioned earlier, it may not be popular or politically correct to address such issues, but we believe it is important in promoting understanding for the purposes of counseling. Ethically, we suggest that a counselor refrain from broaching the topic of sexism in terms of Islam, but rather keep confined to Islam's context of kindness and empathy.

That having been said, however, we cannot lose sight of the fact that Islam remains a highly spiritual perspective that promotes spiritual values such as benevolence, forgiveness, and personal development (Kelly et al., 1996).

It should be also be mentioned that because Islamic doctrines in the Qur'an are integrated with social and political viewpoints, Islam can be a highly political religion that is sometimes hostile toward some Western political ideologies. Of course, there is no small degree of hostility, toward Islam in the United States. Thus, it is possible, and in many cases likely, that Islamic children and adolescents will experience prejudice and discrimination by certain students and, unfortunately, a handful of teachers as well. It stands to reason that stereotypes of all Muslims being viewed as terrorists and extremists must be avoided at all costs (Carter & El Hindi, 1999) and education is one of the best means of doing so. Much of the work involved is related to helping a student maintain his or her beliefs despite verbal assault on them by fellow students and, occasionally, teachers.

Case Example: Islam

The following case example occurred when Freena, a 15-year-old Islamic Pakistani student, sought out a counselor due to fellow students telling her that Islam was a "stupid" religion and other similarly harmful comments. Freena was depressed and confused at the characterization, and was deeply hurt by the cruelty shown to her. Freena had been given per mission to wear a scarf around her head by the school principal, who had otherwise banned any kind of head wear. As a result, she stood out among the other students in high school, with 80% European American or White students. Freena was befriended by the counselor when she first arrived at the school and was told to come to her office and talk if she ever had questions or problems.

Freena presented herself to the counselor about one month after being admitted. She was weeping and saying that she missed her home in Pakistan, and the people there were nice to her and not mean like the people here. When the counselor inquired as to whether something happened that made her sad, Freena at first did not want to specify, saying only that she hated the school and her fellow students. The counselor again asked if there was something that happened. Freena replied that she was unhappy since arriving and that she thought it would get better but it has only gotten worse. "What is it that has gotten worse?" the counselor asked.

Freena replied that students in the school, both boys and girls, regularly told her that Islam was "stupid" and made fun of her clothing. With deep pain she related that they ridiculed her country of origin and said that Islamic people were terrorists. Sometimes these things were said in front of teachers, and although the teachers did not participate in this behavior, they did nothing to stop it. This also hurt Freena. The counselor told Freena that she would do whatever she could to stop this behavior but that in the meantime, she asked her if her own faith in Islam was strong. Freena replied that she was very religious. The counselor asked her if she could talk to her regarding her religion. Freena was now somewhat uncomfortable, but agreed hesitantly. The counselor referred to the aforementioned surah that states that faith in Allah, coupled with benevolent acts will be rewarded by a happy life. Freena, somewhat surprised, began to relax and replied that she was aware of this teaching. The counselor asked her if she could apply this teaching to her current situation. Freena replied that she realized that it was her challenge to withstand these remarks from others, and to make her faith stronger. The counselor then informed Freena that she would attempt to help her with this problem, if she had her permission, which Freena readily granted.

Meanwhile, the counselor went to the principal of the school, and mentioned Freena's painful situation to her. She framed it as a problem with the school's social climate and asked for her support in resolving it. At the next faculty meeting, the principal informed teachers and staff that such prejudiced behavior by students toward Freena was not to be tolerated. She also informed the staff that it should be stressed to students that Islamic people also love and obey God, and that very few Islamic people commit terrorist acts, just as very few Christians commit terrorist acts. Meanwhile, the counselor personally consulted with several of Freena's teachers and obtained their agreement to help. The counselor also sought out a female student involved in the school's peer mediation program, and asked if she could help in stemming the tide of this verbal abuse. The girl soon befriended Freena and introduced her to a few of her friends. All of this proved highly gratifying to Freena, and her mood improved considerably. Although the prejudiced statements diminished, they did not completely stop. However, Freena, with her new social support system, was no longer troubled by them to any great extent.

The primary question for counselor to ask themselves when counseling a Muslim student is how can I connect knowledge of Islamic spirituality to the goals of counseling. With enough knowledge, this is not a difficult task as many of the values of Muslims are generally shared by counselors in the United States (Kelly et al., 1996).

CONCLUSION

Spirituality is an extremely important issue to many clients and cannot be underestimated when establishing relationships. In the case of working with Asian students and their families, it is sometimes the best way to establish a connection. In our experience, many Asian students and parents will tend to show a considerable amount of respect for the counselor who has taken the time to learn about their spiritual beliefs and values.

We believe that the key to establishing spiritual connections with Asian clients is through communicating empathic understanding. However, this empathy is not only based on knowledge of Asian religion and spirituality, it also includes understanding of the mindset of those who practice these religious disciplines. The concept of cultural empathy best explains the integration of cultural knowledge, counselor wisdom, and the awareness necessary for connecting with a student from a different spiritual tradition. It is not enough to merely understand a religion, it is also important to understand the religion in the cultural context of how it is actually practiced and who is practicing. It is also important to recognize that a spiritual practice varies according to the culture in which it finds itself, even when the religion is the same. Christianity, for example, looks a lot different when practiced in Sumatra than it does in Indiana. Similarly, Buddhism takes on an aspect in Nepal that is slightly different from what one would encounter in Sri Lanka.

There is an important ethical issue regarding this aspect of counseling. It is important that the counselors refrain from imposing their own beliefs or religious perspectives on clients, regardless of how misguided these traditions may seem to the counselor. There are times when a highly religious counselor may experience incongruence when, for example, his or her own clearly held Christian beliefs dictate that Asian perspectives outlined in this article be considered unacceptable. This can result in what might be termed religious countertransference, and it is at such times that empathy for that student and his or her tradition is most needed. It may help for such a counselor to bear in mind that the difference between an effective counselor and a mediocre counselor is the ability to manage such countertransference feelings (Van Wagoner, Gelso, Hayes, & Diemer, 1991). In addition, given the odd or unusual perspectives that may be expressed by a student from these traditions, it could be tempting to share them with a colleague in a school or elsewhere who should have no access to this information. In such cases, it is relatively easy to inadvertently break confidentiality, as the counselor may not consider this information to be of the nature of self-disclosure.

We further believe that if the counselor is steeped in spirituality, this fundamental and nearly universal aspect of human life forms a foundation or platform that in itself transcends religious barriers. The key is to not get caught up in the nuances of the student's beliefs. Dialectical thinking is an aspect of wisdom that encourages understanding of differing cultures as well as differing spiritual perspectives (Hanna, Bemark et al., 1999). Our point is that even though Asian religions appear to be foreign or strange to some, they are by no means inscrutable or mysterious. In fact, the study of these spiritual traditions can greatly deepen and intensify one's spiritual life to a remarkable degree, helping one's empathic ability to become that much more enhanced.

APPENDIX

Additional Resources

HINDUISM

Flood, G. D. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.

Easwaran, E. (1985). The Bhagavad Gita. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

Easwaran, E. (1987). The Upanishads. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

http://www.hinduism.about.com/

http://www.hindunet.org/

BUDDHISM

Rahula, W. (1978). What the Buddha taught. London: Gordon Fraser.

Easwaran, E. (1986). The Dhammapada. Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and spiritual transformation. Boston: Shambhala.

http://buddhism.about.com/

http://www.buddhanet.net/

ISLAM

Armstrong, K. (2000). Islam: A short history. New York: Modern Library.

Farah, C. E. (2003). Islam: Beliefs and observances. Hauppauge, NY: Barrons.

Lippman,T. W. (1995). Understanding Islam: An introduction to the Muslim world. New York: Penguin.

http://islam.about.com/

http://www.islamicity.com/

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Farah, C. E. (2003). Islam: Beliefs and observances. Hauppauge, NY: Barrons.

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Fred J. Hanna, Ph.D., is a professor and Alan Green, Ph.D., is an assistant professor. Both are with the Department of Counseling and Human Services, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD. E-mail: [e-mail]