Asceticism and the environment.

Trees, Robes, Jewels

Mahavira exhorted his disciples more than 2,400 years ago to see the trees in the forest not as a resource to be exploited, but for their beauty and form.

    A monk or a nun, seeing big trees in parks, on hills, or in woods,
    should not speak of them in this way:
    "These trees are fit for palaces, gates, houses, benches, bolts,
    boats, buckets, stools, trays, ploughs, machines, poles, seats,
    beds, cars, sheds."
    Considering well, they should not use such sinful language.
    "A monk or a nun, seeing big trees in parks, on hills, or in woods,
    should speak about them in this way:
    These trees are noble, high and round, big;
    they have many branches, extended branches,
    they are very magnificent."
    Considering well, they should use such sinless language.
    (Acaranga Sutra II:4.2.11-12) (1)

The Buddha specified that his disciples were to own only three robes and a single begging bowl.

    Traveling by stages I came to Vesali. There I stayed at the Gotamaka
    Temple. Now that time was the coldest part of the winter, and I sat
    outside wearing one robe and was not cold. Towards the end of the
    first watch I became cold so I put on a second robe and the cold
    feeling abated. Towards the end of the middle watch I became cold so
    I put on a third robe and the cold feeling abated. Towards the end
    of the final watch, as dawn arose putting joy on the face of the
    night, I became cold so I put on a fourth robe and the cold feeling
    abated.
      I thought, "those who have gone forth as monastics, even those
    delicately brought up who might be afraid of the cold, are certainly
    able to get by with this amount in the way of robes. Suppose I were
    to set a limit and were to allow just three robes." So, monks, I
    allow you three robes: a double-layered outer robe, a single-layer
    upper robe and single-layer inner robe--thus four layers of cloth.
    (Vinaya Nis.Pac. I) (2)

Patanjali stated that by owning little, one can arrive at a deep understanding of the origins of things, and that all things will become as if radiant jewels:

    When steadfast in nonpossession, there is knowledge
    of "the how" of existence (Yoga Sutra II:39).
    When established in not stealing,
    whatever is present is all jewels.
    (Yoga Sutra II:37)

These three traditions, Jainism, Buddhism, and the classical Yoga of Patanjali, contain the foundational definitions and rules for ascetic practices in India. By living a life regulated by vows, one can advance to the goal of each system: kevala in Jainism, nirvana in Buddhism, and kaivalyam in Yoga. All of these can be typologized as paths to liberation or moksha. The actual treading of the path entails concerted effort within the confines of ascetic behavior, behaviors that, though intensely personal, nonetheless carry an ethical imperative that can be instructive for the larger society. In this essay, we will examine the content of select vows from these traditions, and explore how they might serve as guideposts for the ongoing development of social ethics, particularly as applied to the environment.

As a starting point, let us consider the statement uttered by the Buddha. The clothing mandate that specifies that a monk may own three robes arose from his direct experience. The Buddha, like Mahatma Gandhi many centuries later, only required of others what he would expect of himself, ensuring authenticity in his teachings. This becomes emblematic of how vow-based ethics developed in South Asian traditions: the founder of the tradition, in this case the Buddha, experimented until he discovered optimal behavior for a life of restraint. Having tried it himself, others were encouraged to follow his behavior.

For Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, this tradition of imitating the founder of the faith led to a great debate regarding the very necessity of clothing. We know that Mahavira eventually eschewed all bodily coverings. According to the Digambara sect, this was a conscious decision. By not wearing any garments, he avoided causing harm to the cotton or other plant material that would have been injured in the production of the cloth. He also became free from the worry that insects might become trapped and crushed in the folds of his robe or loincloth. Senior Digambara monks to this day renounce all clothing. According to the Svetambara tradition, Mahavira's loincloth was snagged by a bush; he did not consciously decide to adopt total nudity, but rather opted not to replace his lost garment. Consequently, all monks (and nuns) of the Svetambara order dress in simple white robes, following what they consider to be the example set by their leader.

Jainism, Buddhism and Yoga require their adherents to live their lives in accord with a moral code. The Jaina code, first fully articulated in the Acaranga Sutra (ca. 350 B.C.E.) was enfolded directly into Patanjali's Yoga Sutra (ca. 200 C.E.). This code includes five vows that frame ethical behavior, much as the Ten Commandments govern the life of observant Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The first vow, nonviolence (ahimsa) serves as the foundation for the other five vows. According to both the Digambara and Svetamabra traditions of the Jainas, it must be applied to all forms of living beings. Even the elements themselves (earth, water, fire, air) must be handled delicately, as life suffuses each of these domains. Detailed instructions are given in the Jaina texts about how to avoid injury by deed, word, and thought. Even pointing must be avoided by Jaina monks and nuns, as it might cause fear to arise in the hearts of animals. The other four vows are practiced in the context of generating no harm. Truth (satyam) must be observed in a way that is both honest and compassionate. Not stealing (asteya) helps one avoid encroaching on the property (and time) of others. Sexual restraint (brahmacarya) helps one avoid emotional and physical harm that can inevitably arise, particularly if one has taken a vow not to marry. Non-possession (aparigraha) frees one from the burden of owning things.

The Buddha also promulgated a list of rules for his monastics, albeit far more exhaustive. Four require expulsion from the monastic order if violated: fornication, theft, killing a human being, and falsely claiming spiritual attainments. (3) Other vows specify behavior that must be observed in accord with honesty, avoidance of schism, shunning of luxurious beds and overly-comfortable buildings, non-acceptance of gold and silver, parsimonious handling of personal items such as one's robes and begging bowl, restrictions on travel, and general comportment. (4) These vows continue to define and regulate Buddhist monastic life. Though many of the requirements are specific to monks and nuns, several of the rules may find universal application, such as the precepts of not killing, not stealing, and truthfulness.

The later Mahayana Buddhist tradition taught adherence to six perfections which combine a concern for moral behavior with the cultivation of positive virtues. These include giving (dana), morality (sila, specified as not killing, stealing or fornicating; not lying, slandering, speaking harshly, or chattering frivolously; not having covetous thoughts, hostile thoughts, or false views), patience (ksanti), vigor (virya), meditation (dhyana), and the perfection of wisdom (prajna-paramita). (5) This last perfection takes human shape in the form of a goddess known as the Perfection of Wisdom who is "the Mother of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas."

Stretching Vows to Cover the Earth

Each of these forms of asceticism requires intense self-scrutiny and attention to the behavior of each monk and nun. Spiritual aspiration requires a specific lifestyle, referred to by the Buddha as Right Livelihood. The Right Livelihood for a Buddhist monk requires the adoption of more than two hundred monastic rules. Lay Buddhists, though not required to follow the rules for monks and nuns, nonetheless are expected to maintain nonviolence, truthfulness, and not stealing as the anchor for their lifestyle. Similarly, in Jainism, a much larger and more complex set of rules governs the lives of monks and nuns while Jaina laypersons live according to a somewhat lesser code. Nonetheless, lay Jainas are expected to conform to a vegetarian diet and take up traditionally nonviolent professions such as trade and the arts.

Being mindful of one's clothing can extend to all the goods that one chooses to possess. The story of how the Buddha designed the monastic wardrobe holds several lessons. He determined how much is enough. Two robes would be insufficient to protect one from the cold; five robes would be unnecessary. Even for a layperson, this approach to possessions can be instructive. Owning too much has been effectively linked with unwise resource use. Energy, generally in the form of coal or oil, is needed to grow the raw materials for cloth, harvest them, and transport them to the market for processing. If, for instance, the crop needed to produce clothing is cotton, the factory needs electricity to create thread, to power the looms, and then more resources are needed to transport the cloth to another factory for sewing into garments, and then shipping the garments, often thousands of miles, to be sold, creating a hugely inefficient process for sheltering one from the elements. To own fewer clothes (and to own organic, locally produced clothes) reduces the net negative impact of consumer behavior on the overall ecological balance.

This story relates well to the terse precepts given by Patanjali about the disciplines of non-possession (aparigraha) and not stealing (asteya). By minimizing one's ownership of things, one comes to value more deeply one's possessions and to remember the details about their acquisition. If one limits one's furniture to family heirlooms, then each chair and table holds the cherished memories of prior generations. If all things are regarded with honor and respect, then one will see things not for their economic value in the consumer market, but for their utility and innate beauty.

For the Jainas and Yogis, the five great ascetic vows can be instructive for developing appropriate actions in response to specific issues of environmental concern.

The first vow, nonviolence, serves as the foundational starting point for the asceticism of India. The question to be asked is, "will this thought, word, or deed cause harm or violence to another? If so, what alternative can be found?" This precept appeals to the fundamental yearning in the human heart to protect oneself through not agitating others. In the early days of industrialization, the availability of environmental resources seemed endless. Some early prophets witnessed the potential downside to factories: William Blake decried the polluted landscape and air; Charles Dickens gave witness to the human suffering caused by unbridled factory production; Henry David Thoreau complained of the noise and pollution caused by locomotive trains; J. R. R. Tolkien stated that the ring held by Gollum was inter alia a metaphor for the internal combustion engine. Some of these warnings resulted in correctives: better engines, shorter working hours, and the rise of a middle consumer class. Today we have become more deeply aware of the interconnectivity of all forms of life. Rachel Carson exposed the link between DDT and the extinctions that have decimated diversity of life forms. Contemporary scientists are researching the effects of household chemicals on human biology. The precept of nonviolence mandates that we take into account the inter-relationship between our actions and the natural world when making personal and policy decisions. This requires great acts of will, both on the personal and the governmental level, particularly when the prevailing worldview favors economic growth over wise choices. Vegetarianism is known to improve health and to reduce the strain on resources such as grain and water inherent in the production and distribution of meat, as noted in an editorial in the Los Angeles Times, (6) "Many persons with a deep commitment to nonviolence have chosen to adopt a vegetarian diet, due to the dual concerns of minimizing one's own risk of disease and leaving a smaller imprint on the environment.

Truthfulness in the ascetic life suggests that one be mindful of the information about the environment and respond accordingly. Global warming has been linked to the increase in industrial production over the past two hundred and fifty years and the consequent release of carbon into the atmosphere. In times past, natural events such as volcanoes have occurred with cataclysmic results. We cannot expect to control the earth's basic geology. But we can be truthful with ourselves about the consequences of human behavior. By proclaiming the truth and educating others the necessary actions for remediation can follow. Misinformation or self-deception will delay the inevitable harm that will result from denial and neglect. Gandhi, the twentieth century exemplar for applied asceticism, called his struggle for India to overcome its dependence on British colonial rule his great experiment with truth, Satyagraha, and used public education in the form of marches and rallies to mobilize the public into appropriate action.

Not stealing seems like one of the more "likable" ascetic practices. No one likes to be a victim of theft; it seems that the human conscience after the age of seven is innately predisposed to respect the goods of others. Most people are driven to steal by a either a basic need for simple survival or a greed driven by addiction. However, the contemporary economic system masks many injustices that would fall under the category of stealing. The United States holds five percent of the world's population, yet consumes forty percent of the world's natural resources. The true cost of this consumption is not being paid. Wage workers in the developing world who produce manufactured goods earn a tiny fraction of the final price being paid; most of the financial benefit of the consumer economy goes to the services industry and the corporations that provide marketing. In a sense, unless, as Gandhi suggested, economies become locally based, a not-so-subtle form of theft is being committed by complicit participation in consumerism, from the overuse of petroleum to produce and distribute goods, resulting in an increase in global warming, to under-compensation of factory workers. An added issue, particularly in the realm of consumer electronics, is that reliance on media such as video games, music machines, and entertainment, tends to take away from human contact and personal creativity.

Sexual restraint holds value on many counts across all cultures. Prostitution, the world's oldest profession, diminishes human worth. Lasciviousness and expressions of power through sexual and sexualized behavior result in victimization and oppression. Uncontrolled sexual activity can result in disease and death. Uncontrolled population growth can result from irresponsible or uninformed attitudes toward reproduction. Sexuality has long been used to stoke the fires of consumerist desire, promoting images and products that appeal to an individual's insecurities and lusts.

Non-possession is perhaps the greatest challenge facing the contemporary global society. The production and acquisition of "stuff" has never been "easier" in the course of human history. We now have access in the developed world to seemingly endless supplies of food, larger and larger houses, cars and trucks of all shapes and sizes, entertainment diversions that appeal to all demographic niches, and travel opportunities unimaginable even forty years ago. Yet all of this opportunity carries a hidden toll on the human psyche and the larger world order. Easy access to food has led to increasing rates of obesity, disease, and morbidity. Larger houses have meant increased isolation of family members from one another, larger utility bills, and greater destruction of natural resources such as timber to build and oil for fuel. The "progression" from Mom's minivan to Dad's SUV has resulted in poor fuel economy, and, thankfully a backlash interest in hybrid and alternative fuel vehicles. Entertainment, as mentioned above, has become a major driver of the economy, yet its content has slipped downward into trivialization, cynicism, and over-hyping of vacuous celebrity. Travel, which can open horizons and foster sensitivity to other ways of life, can also ravage local economies and cultures, as well as help contribute to global warming through the increasing usage of jet fuel. To carefully assess one's usage patterns can be instructive and even liberating. To choose carefully can ensure that one is taking enough for one's need, not merely fueling one's greed, as advised by Gandhi. Furthermore, the power of the wise purchase cannot be underestimated. Though few can aspire to the level of non-consumption attained by the monks and nuns of the Jaina faith, all can aspire to be thoughtful and aware consumers.

These five vows of Jainism and classical Yoga as well as the ethical precepts of Buddhism can be applied creatively to contribute to the growing discussion of the need for deeper forms of environmental ethics. Gandhi advocated that "We must become the change that we want to see in the world." These practices give guidelines and frameworks for making personal decisions that have social and global significance.

Three Case Examples

Sadhvi Shilapi, a Jaina nun, has done extensive work with the rural poor of Bihar, an impoverished state in northeastern India. A leader within the Digambara monastic tradition, she has commented frequently on the relationship between the Jaina faith and the cultivation of ecological values. She cites sections from the epic poem, the Adipurana, that extol value of the forest: "forests moderate the climate, check thunderstorms and floods, protect the neighboring areas from cold winds, and enable the constant flow of rivers. They provide shelter for wildlife and fodder for animals, innumerable industrial raw materials, and thousands of excellent medicines. They regulate the underground water systems and provide panoramic beauty ... forests are like saints ... forests remove fatigue." (7) Noting a link between human exploitation and the depletion of natural resources, she points out that "Limiting resources and possessions is one of the major vows that the Jain laity observe.... Using any resource beyond actions of necessity, or the misuse of any part of nature, is considered a form of theft, a transgression, and repentance is required." (8) Shilapi's work in Bihar includes support for Veerayatan, a social services and education center that has planted thousands of trees and provides regular medical and educational services. Her commitment to the principles of Jainism inspires her to remain engaged with this work of social and ecological uplift.

Stephanie Kaza, a practicing Buddhist and scholar-activist, has published several works that suggest that the application of Buddhist principles would be highly instructive when contemplating issues of ecological concern. She herself trained both as conservation biologist and as a Zen practitioner and has served in various leadership capacities, both in the academic world and in various forms of American Buddhism. In her writings, she cites the environmental work of the Dalai Lama and Thich Nhat Hanh, the leading international figures in the Buddhist world, as well as the accomplishments of Daido Loori at Zen Mountain Monastery in New York, Robert Aitken at Diamond Sangha in Hawaii, and the Green Gulch Community in California in experimenting with eco-friendly forms of Buddhism. In addition, she notes the work of the Buddhist Peace Fellowship in raising consciousness in regard to a number of social issues, including the environment, and of Buddhist authors Alan Badiner (Dharma Gaia 1990), Philip Kapleau (To Cherish All Life 1981) and activists Joanna Macy and John Seed who created the Buddhist-inspired Council of All Beings, a periodic gathering of persons interesting in cultivating deeper connections with the earth.

Stephanie's own writing career began with a close study of the nature of trees, The Attentive Heart (1993), emphasizing the Buddhist principle of interdependence. She edited a collection of Buddhist environmental essays, Dharma Rain (2000) and most recently published a Buddhist critique of consumerism: Hooked!: Buddhist Writings on Greed, Desire, and the Urge to Consume (2005). This most recent book includes writings from both Asian and non-Asian scholars and practitioners of Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Buddhism, seeking to explore the creation of an informed asceticism for laypeople that will allow the wisdom of Buddhist vows to inform individual consumer choices. Kaza writes: "Perhaps the most useful of the Buddhist teachings is the insight into the emptiness of the ego self. This view holds the key to releasing attachment to the constant self-inflating messages of consumerism." (9) The Buddhist view shifts emphasis from objects or beings to the relationships that form them. A relational worldview ... becomes a powerful tool for dismantling the structure of consumerism. By adopting a new asceticism, these Buddhist thinkers suggest that some of the ill effects of industrial over-production and media-generated self identity based on shopping might be remedied.

Laura Cornell founded the Green Yoga Association in 2003, as a way for the expanding Yoga community to respond to issues of environmental concern. In 2002, she issued the Green Yoga Values Statement, which represents a new interpretation of Yoga's traditional asceticism:

    The health of our bodies depends on clean air, clean water, and
    clean food.... Yoga developed in the context of a close relationship
    with the earth ... This reverence towards life is the basis of the
    Yogic teaching of ahimsa, or nonviolence ... If humanity is to
    survive and thrive, we must learn to live in balance with
    nature. (10)

This statement asks practitioners of Yoga to become educated about the biosphere, aware of one's immediate natural environment, to discuss environmental issues in the context of Yoga's ethical practices, to develop environmentally friendly policies within the physical aspects and educational teachings of Yoga. In her doctoral dissertation, Cornell suggests that the vows of Yoga provide a foundation for correct action that extends to all living beings and ecosystems. The organization that she founded, the Green Yoga Association, has developed a series of conferences and trainings to help Yoga studios and Yoga teachers integrate Gandhian principles into their teaching of Yoga.

The reinterpretation of Yoga ascetic practice in light of environmental awareness has included a campaign on the part of the Green Yoga Association to encourage the replacement of Yoga mats made of polyvinyl chloride that contain phthalates with mats that contain an organic blend of natural rubber and jute. Sequences of Yoga poses have been created by Green Yoga teachers that invoke the power of the elements, thereby inviting students to cultivate a deeper intimacy with nature. According to Cornell, the practices and principles of ecology can be infused into the teaching of Yoga.

These three teachers have created models of behavior that build on traditional Asian ethics and re-interpret them in the context of the contemporary problems of environmental abuse and alienation. Sadhvi Shilapi's work at planting trees can help bring more reliable food and shelter to a deeply impoverished area of India. Stephanie Kaza's advocacy of a new asceticism that reduces addictive consumerism and "affluenza" builds on the traditional Buddhist teachings on the relationship between greed and suffering. Laura Cornell is seeking to make the increasingly popular practice of Yoga a vehicle for environmental advocacy through heightened awareness.

Conclusion

Asceticism in Asia began with meditative and monastic practices designed to release the individual from suffering. Karma theory played a great role in the development of asceticism in Jainism, Buddhism, and Yoga. All three traditions attribute human greed, hatred, and delusion to the fettering, lingering presence of afflicted or impure residues (samskaras or vasanas) that must be cleansed as the individual moves toward freedom. Ethical behavior serves as a corrective to address pass wrongs and as a way of forging new pathways in the present to guarantee future states of auspiciousness. By sloughing off old impure behaviors and taking on new pure activities, both the individual and the society benefit. By skillfully applying precepts such as nonviolence and minimizing one's possessions in the context of one's ecological footprint, asceticism helps improve not only oneself but also the world.

Bibliography

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Barnhill, David Landis and Roger S. Gottlieb, eds., Deep Ecology and World Religions: New Essays on Sacred Grounds (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001).

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Notes

1. In Herman Jacobi, translator. Jaina Sutras, Part One (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1884), 154-155.

2. As quoted in Stephanie Kaza, ed., Hooked: Buddhist Writings on Greed, Desire, and the Urge to Consume (Boston and London: Shambhala, 2005), 184-185.

3. Richard H. Robinson and Willard J. Johnson, The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction, Fourth Edition (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997), 49.

4. Charles Prebish, Buddhist Monastic Discipline: The Sanskrit Pratimoksa Sutras of the Mahasamghikas and Mulasarvastivadins (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975), 11-17.

5. Robinson and Johnson, op. cit., 56-57.

6. Los Angeles Times Editorial, "Pollution on the Hoof," October 15, 2007.

7. Shilapi, in Christopher Key Chapple, ed., Jainism and Ecology: Nonviolence in the Web of Life (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Center for the Study of World Religions, distributed by Harvard University Press), 162.

8. Ibid., 164.

9. Stephanie Kaza, ed., Hooked: Buddhist Writings on Greed, Desire, and the Urge to Consume. (Boston & London: Shambhala, 2005), 11.

10. Laura Jean Cornell. "Green Yoga: A Collaborative Inquiry Among a Group of Kripalu Yoga Teachers." Doctoral Dissertation. (San Francisco: California Institute of Integral Studies, 2006), 351.