Art of being Tuareg: Sahara nomads in a modern world.

The moment he saw her, He re-arranged his veil He stopped, forgetting the road, Until his friends became surprised.

They understood, of course And told him he must be patient ...

Before seeing her face, He saw her rings, her tizabatines, He saw her necklace of amulets. He was sick with love ...

--Wasslya Tamzali, Abzim: Parures et bijoux des femmes d'Algerie (Paris: Dessain et Tolra, 1984, p. 106.)

The majesty, stateliness, and beauty of the Tuareg people of the central Sahara, their large, white riding camels and shimmering indigo dress and veils, have fascinated travelers and scholars for centuries. Their ability to master the harsh and forbidding desert environment and to repel, control, or withstand outsiders, colonial powers, and modern governments has engendered an almost mythical quality in the Tuareg. This exhibition, co-curated by the author and Kristyne Loughran, and the accompanying book comprising ten essays by eight authors, presents the art of the Tuareg in metal, wood, leather, song, poetry, and personal presentation. It focuses on the inadan (artists/smiths) social grouping, who make many of the objects on display as well as play other very important roles in Tuareg culture, as organizers of weddings, healers, and ambassadors between different Tuareg groups. This is the first major exhibition in the United States of the historic works of art of the Tuareg as well as their more modern creations. It is also the first significant volume in English to explore the aesthetic dimensions of their lives, past and present. Works in the exhibition come from the collections of the Mus6e du Quai Branly in Paris, the Musee d'ethnographie in Neuchatel, the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University, the UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, and a private collection.

The first written descriptions of the Tuareg occur in early Arabic texts, including those by Ibn Hawkal in the tenth century, El Bekri in the eleventh century and, more extensively, Ibn Batutah and Ibn Khaldun in the fourteenth century and Leo Africanus in the sixteenth century. These travelers crossed the Sahara following well-established caravan routes, which had also facilitated the introduction of Islam into the region beginning in the seventh century. Islamic penetration intensified with the Hilalian invasion across North Africa of nomadic Bedouins from central Arabia in the eleventh century, which drove many pastoral nomads further south into the Sahara or beyond. The spread of Islam was pronounced throughout the Sahara and western Sudan and had considerable influence on the Tuareg as well.

In the nineteenth century, European explorers often employed the Tuareg as desert guides. Some of these visitors, notably Heinrich Barth and Henri Duveyrier, stayed among the Tuareg and wrote fascinating accounts of their experiences. During the rush to colonize Africa in the early twentieth century, European, and particularly French, interest in the region intensified. The French invaded Tuareg areas in Algeria and tried to dominate them, as well as the other nomadic peoples of the Sahara. The Tuareg managed to resist the French for two decades, often using their mastery of the desert environment to defeat their invaders. Although the French ultimately prevailed, their control of the Tuareg region was always tenuous, punctuated by numerous uprisings and rebellions. The French West African colonies gained their independence in the 1950s and 1960s, and today the independent nations of Algeria, Niger, and Mall are home to the largest concentration of Tuareg, estimated at close to one million.

The Tuareg are a loose confederation of groups of pastoral nomads, settled agriculturalists, and, today, city dwellers, who speak a Berber language that is known as Tamasheq in the northern region and Tamachek in the more populous southern region. They refer to themselves as Kel Tamasheq or Kel Tamachek (people who speak Tamasheq/Tamachek) and sometimes as Kel Tagulmust (men who wear the veil). The four main groups of Tuareg are the Ahaggar, Tassili-n-Ajjer, Adrar des Ifoghas, and Air. While there is considerable variation among these groups, social strata (often referred to as "castes" in the literature) exist within all of them, with powerful nobles (ihaggaren or imajeren) assuming leadership. Nobles are the descendants of the camel breeders who dominated the vassal groups of goat breeders known as imrad. Controlling the caravan trade routes, nobles undertook raids for camels and sometimes enslaved peoples to the south, who were then known as iklan. Other sub-Saharan peoples (izeggaren), who were settled agriculturists, gave part of their crops to the nobles in return for protection. Two other social groups had special relationships to the nobles, as well as to other Tuareg. The first was composed of Islamic teachers (inselemen), who achieved their status through training and religious practice. The second constituted artists or smiths, known as inadan (sg. enad), who form a major focus of "Art of the Tuareg" and its accompanying catalogue.

There are several accounts of the origins of the inadan, but it is likely that they are, in part, descendants of Jews who were forced out of southern Morocco in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and followed long-established trans-Saharan trade routes to the region of the Tuareg. Some inadan even today claim Lord Dauda (David) as their patron saint. They have a complex and ambiguous relationship to the larger group and are often not considered "true" Tuareg, as their social origins were from outside the culture. They are nonetheless essential to the Tuareg, for they make all weapons, tools, leather objects, jewelry, and camel saddles. Their fellow Tuareg, however, regard them with some suspicion or apprehension due to their ability to make objects from the mysterious interaction of fire and metal; their secret language (Tenet); their capacity to engage the world of spirits with a mystic power known as ettama or tezma; their role as confidants and ambassadors operating between Tuareg families and groups; and their lack of the social reserve highly valued by noble Tuareg.

"Art of Being Tuareg" examines the mystique of Tuareg identity as it has been constructed by both the Tuareg themselves and observers of the Tuareg. This exhibition and the accompanying volume are unique in their focus on the evolution of a Tuareg ethos through time and the consideration of how "modernity" has impacted the process of Tuareg self-invention. Special attention has been given to the inadan and how their role within the larger Tuareg social structure has changed with the development of a new clientele and the necessity of working in a cash economy.

Walking Through the Exhibition

The exhibition is arranged in reverse chronological order. The introductory area consists of interpretive materials: maps and basic background about the Tuareg and photographs of different Tuareg individuals from Mali and Niger, along with their personal reflections on what it means to be Tuareg today. The purpose is to provide a contemporary context that runs both parallel and counter to the prevalent perspective of the romanticized "Blue People" held by many outsiders.

The second section of the exhibition illustrates the global impact upon Tuareg art, as well as the spread of Tuareg art to shops in major cities throughout the world and in many online "virtual shops." Many Western designers have worked with and borrowed from Tuareg inadan, particularly in the development of silver jewelry. Hermes of Paris has commissioned work from Tuareg inadan and has also borrowed Tuareg design motifs for use in other products. This section is designed to look like a Western, urban boutique.

The visitor proceeds into the third section, which explores the more than thirty years of research and collecting the author has undertaken among the Oumba and Ouhoulou family in Agadez and Niamey, Niger. This closer look at a very productive and well-respected inadan family reveals the changes that many inadan have undergone due to forces of modernization and clients who are no longer only Tuaregs but also Africans from other regions, Europeans, and Asians. Clothed mannequins of the elders of the family, Saidi Oumba and Andi Ouhoulou, are featured in this area, as well as examples of the family's artistic production over many years, showing changes in style and materials. Also included is a sales display from their boutique in Niamey and a video depicting scenes of the family interacting while making works of art. This area is designed to give the overall feeling of the family's workshop and compound.

Following this close look at one inadan family over the last thirty years, the visitor enters a rather small area devoted to works of art that are more historic and represent high points of Tuareg aesthetics and skill. The earliest known example of a Tuareg artifact in a museum collection dates back only to the late nineteenth century, making "historic" a comparative term, and this section reflects the encounters of the Tuareg and European colonizers of that period. As the Tuareg effectively resisted French efforts to dominate them and their land in the Sahara until the second decade of the twentieth century, significant objects from earlier periods do not appear in museum collections. The collections of the former Musee de l'Homme (now part of the new Musee du Quai Branly) and the Musee d'ethnographie in Neuchatel are the principal sources for older, documented works. These beautiful pieces are presented in a classic art museum style, showcasing them in a dramatically lit environment.

The final section, and by far the largest, presents art and artifacts from what can be characterized as the Tuareg's "traditional" past. It illustrates the way of life of pastoral nomadic groups who carried their wealth and goods on their camels and donkeys from one area of the Sahara to another in search of suitable pasture for their animals, and whose nobles (imargen) conducted long distance trade across the Sahara and vigorously protected their independence and lands.

Central to this section is a tent of goat skin with elaborately carved decorative tent poles (ehel), beautiful leather and reed windscreens (esaber) with carefully executed geometric designs, a variety of wooden bowls, and leather bags, as would be found around a tent. Other display areas present camel saddles, weapons, tools, and tea-making items, as well as splendid examples of silver jewelry, leather bags, and amulets. It is notable that each of these highly elaborate works of art displays evidence of much more time and attention in their making than would be required simply for functionality. A video in this section focuses on the desert and a three-day wedding in the desert, which shows the merging of the Tuareg past and present. Beautiful white camels are mounted by men in all their finery with their heads and faces wrapped in indigo veils, and similarly dressed men drive their 4x4s. Women wear locally embroidered shirts and wrappers, as well as imported fabrics with sequins. Music played on a drum made from a goatskin stretched over a wooden mortar contrasts with a Tuareg "rock" band playing electric instruments powered by a portable generator. Thus, at the close of the exhibition the visitor has made a full circle from the introduction of the Tuareg today, back through time, and emerged again to see the multifaceted dynamic of the Tuareg in the twenty-first century.

"Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World"

* UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History October 29, 2006-February 26, 2007

* Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center'for Visual Arts at Stanford University May 30, 2007-September 2, 2007

* National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution October 10, 2007-September 2, 2008

The exhibition and book are made possible by the generous support of C. Diane Christensen and Karen Christensen; at the Cantor Arts Center, the Halperin Director's Discretionary Fund, the Bill and Jean Lane Fund, and the Phyllis C. Wattis Program Fund; and at UCLA Fowler by the Shirley and Ralph Shapiro Director's Discretionary Fund, Marius, the support group of the Fowler Museum, and the Yvonne Lenart Public Program Fund. Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World has been published by Cantor Arts Center and UCLA Fowler Museum.

1. Pectoral pendant (tcherot or tereout tan idmarden) Tuareg, Kel Ahaggar Ahaggar, Algeria Silver, leather 32cm x 23.3cm (121/2" x 9") UCLA Fowler Museum X88-1385

Pendants such as this from the northern Tuareg region were worn by women as necklaces or, on other occasions, tied into a woman's hair to hang down her back. Triangles and diamond shapes are characteristic of Tuareg design and pieces like this are animated by the movement of the wearer, the movement of the interconnected yet flexible triangular elements, and the play of light off the surfaces.

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2. Andi Ouhoulou. Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Agadez, Niger 1997.

Hadjita Andi Ouhoulou is a well-known and respected tinadan (female smith) of the Kel Ewey confederation of Tuareg. As is characteristic among the Tuareg social group of enad (smiths), tinadan (female smiths), and inadan (male smiths) marry within their social group and most members of the family make objects for other Tuareg and, today, outsiders. Andi is sewing decorative leather elements onto a goatskin bag (eljebira). When asked what it means to her to be a Tuareg today, she replied simply that to be Tuareg means to speak Tamashek (the Berber dialect of the Tuareg) and to follow Tuareg traditions.

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3. Mohamed All ag Almine. Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Timbuktu, Mall, 2005.

"I am 55 years old and my family lives in the desert around Timbuktu. Our life has been good with no sickness and the only problem comes when there is no rain, which hurts our animals. After the peace accord (1995) there is pressure from the Mall government to settle in villages so our children can go to school, which takes the young away from the herding of the animals. But the Tuareg maintain our culture even in the cities and towns and we strongly guard and protect our independence."

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4. Atio Attefock. Photograph by Ann Elston, Agadez, Niger 2005.

A former school teacher in the government school in Agadez, Atio Attefock wears his tagulmust, characteristic of male Tuareg, of white cotton cloth and a separate indigo dyed cloth known as aleshu. Aleshu is made in northern Nigeria of cotton bands approximately 2.5cm (1") wide which are sewn together, forming a cloth of about 750cm x 75cm (295" x 291/2"). The cloth is dyed with indigo several times and powdered indigo is beaten into the cloth, giving it luster. The indigo comes off easily on the skin and has resulted in the Tuareg being referred to as the "Blue People."

When asked what it means to be Tuareg, Atio replied it is to be:

Proud and modest

Attentive and calm

Friendly and hospitable

Sober and tough

Sincere and tolerant

Discrete and open

Forward thinking and able

Fair and grateful

Honest and frank

Strong and victorious

Presentable and handsome

Sensitive and deserving

And above all free, dignified and worthy

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5. Belt buckle set A l'Atefler guild for Hermes Tuareg Agadez, Niger Silver Buckle: 5cm x 7cm x 1.3cm Each ornament: 4.8cm x 112.7cm Private collection

Hermes of Paris is a well-known boutique specializing in fine leather, scarves, and accessories. In the 1990s a relationship was formed between Hermes and Jean-Yves Brizot and his guild of Tuareg inadan known as A l'Atelier. The guild made finely crafted silver pieces to Hermes specifications; these were assembled in France onto purses, belts, and necklaces for sale at Hermes stores. The engraved surface designs in the silver were done by the inadan according to their tradition and imagination and were not dictated by Hermes or Brizot. Hermes also used Tuareg designs in their own creations, especially their signature square silk scarves.

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6a. Bracelet A l'Atelier guild for Exote, Alison Mezey, designer Tuareg Agadez, Niger Silver Diam: 7cm (2 3/4") Private collection

6b. Ring A l'Atelier guild for Exote, Alison Mezey, designer Tuareg Agadez, Niger Silver Diam: 2.9cm (1 1/8") Private collection

The A l'Atelier guild also produced silver jewelry designed by Alison Mezey for Exote, an American business that Mezey and Jean-Yves Brizot created. This bracelet and ring are derived from a classical Tuareg bracelet form (elkiss; Fig. 33).

7. Necklace (houmeni) Saidi Oumba Tuareg, Kel Ewey Niamey, Niger Silver, ebony, glass Pendant: 10.4cm x 10cm (4" x 4") Necklace: L 53cm (20 3/4") UCLA Fowler Museum X97.17.18

Due to many pressures upon the Tuareg over the last century, including conquest and colonization by the French, massive drought, the influx of African and other outsiders, and rebellions, most inadan have moved into towns and cities. While they still produce silver jewelry for Tuareg in classical forms, they also create new designs in response to changing Tuareg fashion and the desires of outsiders. This elaborate necklace, hinged in the center of the pendant, is made of imported beads and silver and ebony wood that is sandwiched in the three hemispheres down the center of the pendant and the two knobs on the side forming the end of the hinge pin. While the shape of the pendant resembles more classical Tuareg design forms, it differs significantly in its curved top element and the addition of ebony inlays. A necklace such as this is made to sell to any client, Tuareg or not, in Niger, Paris, or New York, as today Tuareg sell their jewelry all over the world.

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8. Filigree cross of Agadez with chain Fulbe Bamako, Mali Gold Pendant: 7.5cm x 4.2cm (3" x 1 1/2") UCLA Fowler Museum X97.17.45 a, b

Derived from the well-known cross of Agadez (teneghalt tan Agadez) but made by a Fulbe goldsmith in Mali's capital of Bamako, this work and others like it show the significant influence Tuareg design has today on other artists and artisans. In fact, the cross of Agadez has become one of the few design forms immediately identifiable with West Africa and is used as a motif by non-Tuareg on stamps, currency, and signs to denote "Africa-ness."

9. Saidi Oumba and Andi Ouhoulou with one of Andi's newly made leather bags. Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Agadez, Niger, 2004.

Saidi and Andi are the elders of a large family of enad who live and work in Agadez and Niamey, Niger. While the Tuareg are nominally Muslims, most are not active practitioners. This was the case with Saidi and Andi until later in their lives, when they decided they could afford to make the pilgrimage (hadj) to Mecca. After their respective hadj, they have become more devout. Along with the other education their nine children received, Saidi taught all their sons how to work silver and Andi taught their daughters to work leather. This is how the entire family makes their living, and they are relatively prosperous by standards in Niger and Mall. Andi and Saidi oversee the family, assisting in training their grandchildren. Today Saidi's eyesight is poor so he cannot engrave silver but he does polish and finish pieces made by his sons. Andi still actively makes leather bags such as the one she is showing, featuring a row of green cross of Agadez designs along the top edge.

10. Andi Ouhoulou and her daughter Atyi (now deceased) making a leather bag. Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Agadez, Niger, 1980.

Andi, dressed in a more traditional fashion, is teaching her daughter Atyi, dressed in a more modern fashion, how to trim a leather bag (eljebira). Atyi died giving birth to her third child, a daughter named Ami, who today works with Andi making leather purses for a local cooperative in Agadez. Ami has recently given Andi another great-grandchild.

11. Saidi Oumba (left) and his sons Gonda (middle) and Salah (right). Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Niamey, Niger 1997.

Saidi and his two oldest sons Gonda and Salah set up a workshop in Niamey, the capital of Niger, in 1991, as many Tuareg were in rebellion against the national government in the northern region of Mall and Niger and their business was severely impacted by the lack of clients. Other inadan followed and today, many years after the peace accords were signed ending the rebellion, there are numerous Tuareg workshops in Niamey. Saidi has returned to live full time in Agadez and his several sons move between Agadez and Niamey keeping both workshops active.

12. Necklace (celebre) Ousmane (Mania) Saidi Tuareg, Kel Ewey Agadez, Niger Silver, glass Largest pendant: 3.2cm x 0.6cm (11/4" x 1/4") Cantor Arts Center 2001.206

This necklace was designed in 2001 by Ousmane (Mania) Saidi, who called it "celebre" (which means "famous" in French). The modern pendant forms are interspersed with red beads to create a balanced oval shape. The artist has engraved classical Tuareg design motifs on the pendants, thus creating a link with earlier types of Tuareg jewelry.

13. Amulet (tcherot) Saidi Oumba Tuareg, Kel Ewey Agadez, Niger Silver, gold, leather, cord L. (cord with pendant) 62.2cm (24 1/2") W (of pendant) 10.2cm (4") D (of pendant) 1.9cm (3/4") Private collection

This pendant, commissioned by the author from Saidi Oumba in 1988, is a type that is one of the most difficult objects for an inadan to make. Saidi showed his mastery not only in the shaping of the steps of the pyramidal form and in the crisp and precise engraving, but also with the addition of a gold conical center.

Tcherot contain a folded piece of paper of protective prayers drawn from the Koran. Written by an Islamic teacher (marabout), folded into a "magic square," and blessed by incense smoke, the amulet is sealed within the decorative silver pendant that is worn around the neck.

14. Bag (taghrek) Andi Ouhoulou Tuareg, Kel Ewey Agadez, Niger Leather, pigment, metal 102cm x 61cm x 5.1cm (40" x 24" x 2") Private collection

Made in 2004 by Andi Ouhoulou, this bag demonstrates great technical and design skill. Made from dyed cow hide, such bags are hung from camel saddles on festive occasions and used as decorations and to store clothing in the home. Designed to move with the camel, the many tassels sway, revealing different colors, while the small brass hemispheres in the central band of the bag shimmer in the light.

Each tassel and flap has been colored and engraved or has had the green leather overlay glued and sewn on. The overall effect is dynamic and elaborate, infinitely more than is needed for the function of the bag as a container. A work of art such as this embodies in many ways the artfulness of how the Tuareg present themselves to each other and the world.

15a. Knife or chopstick rest Saidi Oumba Tuareg, Kel Ewey Niamey, Niger Ebony, silver

L: 7.6cm (3") UCLA Fowler Museum X97.17.41

15b. Bottle ring Saidi Oumba Tuareg, Kel Ewey Niamey, Niger Silver, fabric

H: 1.6cm; Diam: 4cm (2/3" x 11/2") UCLA Fowler Museum X97.17.43

Objects such as these demonstrate the influence of non-African clients on the production of works by Tuareg inadan. The ebony rest with silver ends derives from a commission Saidi received from a Japanese embassy official. Similarly, the silver ring with felt interior was commissioned by a Frenchman to go over the neck of a wine bottle to stop drips. These and many other examples show how Saidi and other inadan have responded to outside influences in order to develop their business and maintain their family's livelihood.

16. Earrings (agale or broderie) Salah Saidi Tuareg, Kel Ewey Agadez, Niger 21 carat gold

Each: 7cm x 4.5cm (23/4' x 13/4") Cantor Arts Center 2001 203.a-b

Gold is not commonly used to manufacture classical Tuareg jewelry styles; silver has always been the preferred metal, both for its clarity and for the fact it is thought to attract al baraka, or blessings. Gold became fashionable in the 1960s when Tuareg men started working in Libya, and today it is often imported from Saudi Arabia in the form of coins or jewelry, which are then melted down. Tuareg women who work and earn wages are eager to invest in gold jewelry because it has better resale potential than silver. More and more inadan are thus training to work with this precious metal to create designs that appeal to a Tuareg clientele.

The earrings shown here, designed by Salah Saidi, are extremely popular and are called agale or broderie (the French term for "embroidery"). This type of earring is often made with a central gold coin (either imported or made by smiths themselves) and decorated with a delicately scalloped gold wire design.

17. 21 silver crosses in tooled leather frame Ousmane (Mania) Saidi Tuareg, Kel Ewey Niamey, Niger Silver, leather, wood, glass 32cm x 39.7cm (122/3', x 152/3") Private collection

While it is unclear which inadan first came up with the idea to frame all twenty one crosses of the various Tuareg regions, Saidi Oumba was already producing them in the 1980s with rough wooden frames. As these souvenirs became very popular with foreign visitors, most inadan families produce them. Those who do so in Niamey work with a group of Malian Tuareg who have specialized in making decorative leather (over a wood frame) boxes and picture frames as well as brief cases and wallets.

To conserve silver and speed manufacture of the crosses each is cast in a flat mold so only one side needs to be finished and engraved as the back in invisible against the felt backing of the frame. The well-known cross of Agadez is in the center of this frame.

18. Bag (taseihat) Tuareg, Kel Icheriffen Gao, Mall Leather, pigment 88cm x 81cm (342/3" x 32") Musee d'ethnographie, Neuchatel 48.3.2

The Tuareg attach great value and prestige to

leather bags. They are used to hold clothing, personal belongings, household items, and foodstuffs such as tea and milk. Some bags are specifically designed as saddle bags, used during migration. Bag shapes are rectangular, square, conical, oval, or elongated. Some have closure flaps and others simply have a long neck, which gets folded over and tied or secured with an ornamented metal lock. Almost all bags are decorated with colorful fringes, which have impressed, stitched or excised motifs. Sometimes pendants and tassels are added for extra visual impact. The most consistent designs are diamonds, triangles, dots, and zigzag lines and cross shapes.

Women mostly make bags from goatskins, spending many months working on a single item. This particular bag is used by women as a saddlebag. The suspension rings attach the bag to the saddle. It is decorated with appliqued strips of leather and embellished with geometric embroidery designs and many fringes and pendant shapes.

19. Painting with cattle and humans, Bovidian period (4000-2000 BCE). Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, Tassili-n-Ajjer, In Itenen, Algeria, 1984.

Inhabiting the central Sahara where there are numerous mountains, the Tuareg are well aware of the prehistoric paintings and petroglyphs that are scattered among the rocks. It is estimated that the earliest of these depictions are from 6-8000 years ago and each successive period shows the changes in the Sahara from a fertile plain capable of supporting elephant, giraffe, people, and their herds of cattle and goats, to a drier period when only camels could traverse the sands.

20. Shield (agher) Tuareg Timbuktu, Mall Leather, metal, cloth, pigment 121cm x 74cm (472/3' x 29") Musee d'ethnographie, Neuchatel 60.7.317

Riding their white camels with spear (allagh), sword (takuba), and protective shield (agher), the Tuareg maintained political and economic control over the central Sahara for centuries. The most coveted shields were made of oryx hide, which is reputed to be tough enough to withstand sword cuts. This shield is embellished with leather and cloth decorations held in place by metal studs. The Tuareg warrior holds the shield in his left hand by a handle on its back side and wields his straight sword in his right hand.

21. Dassine oult Ihemma playing an imzad. Photograph by P. Ichac, date unknown, Tamanrasset, Algeria, Musee du Quai Branly, Phototeque, c.34.1576.231.

The earliest significant anthropological research among the Tuareg was undertaken by the French, who had colonized most of West Africa. The Musee de l'Homme (now part of Musee du Quai Branly) collected objects from the Tuareg as well as numerous photographs of people. This Algerian Tuareg woman plays a one-stringed instrument (imzad) while singing lyric poetry. Music and lyric poetry are central elements of Tuareg artistic life to this day. The fact that she is wearing of a veil over her nose and mouth is very unusual, as such veils are normally only worn by Tuareg men.

22. Sugar shears (temoda ton essukor) Amrar ag Amareouat Tuareg. Kel Rela Algeria Steel, copper, aluminum 30.3cm x 7.6cm x 2.9cm (12" x 3"x 1 1/8') Musee du Quai Branly 71.1941.19.158

Tea, tea-making equipment, and sugar have all come to the Tuareg through trade. In the past, the tea was whatever variety was available and sugar came in large, densely cast cones that had to be broken with hammers and shears. The preparation of tea with elegantly crafted tools occurred several times a day to assuage hunger and provide time for fellowship and conversation. Tea is still regularly prepared today although the sugar now comes in cubes imported from France that require no shears, and the other materials and equipment most often come from China.

23. Wallet (ettabu) Tuareg Aouderas, Niger Leather, shells, coins 73.7cm x 10cm x 25.4cm (29" x 4" x 10") Private collection

Leather containers such as this served multiple functions for the nomadic Tuareg. The flap opens, allowing owners to carry whatever they wish--money, amulets, small versions of the Koran, keys, and other small items. The use of sea shells to embellish this wallet reflects the extensive trade network the Tuareg were involved with from the coast of West Africa to the north coast of Africa as well as into Egypt.

24. Bag (taseihat) Tuareg, Iwellemmeden Tchin Tabaraden, Niger Leather, pigment 49cm x 140cm (19V4" x 51") Musee d'ethnographie, Neuchatel 71.6.23

This leather travel bag comes from the Mu see d'ethnographie in Neuchatel, Switzerland, an institution with a lengthy history of collecting Tuareg art. The museum's Saharan collection missions began in the late 1940s under the direction of Jean Gabus and other colleagues working in Algeria and Niger. The museum's Tuareg collection includes objects in wood, leather, basketwork, metalwork, and jewelry. Along with the former Musee de l'Homme in Paris (now part of the Musee du Quai Branly), and the National Museum in Copenhagen, this museum's collection includes many of the earliest and finest pieces of Tuareg art.

25. Tent Poles (ehel) Tuareg Mali Wood

a) 137.5cm x 17.2cm x 2.5cm (54 1/8 x 6 3/4' x 1")

b) 142.2cm x 17.75cm x 3cm (56" x 7"x 1 1/8") Cantor Arts Center 2003.25.a-b

a) 141cm x 18.5cm x 3.5cm (55 1/2" x 7 1/4" x 1 1/3")

b) 140cm x 18.5cm x 3cm (55" x 7 1/4" x 1 1/8") Cantor Arts Center 2003.26.a-b

The nomadic Tuareg used to live primarily in tents made out of either woven fiber mats or leather. The tent was held up with wooden poles; wealthier Tuareg, especially those from eastern Mali, ornamented their tents with highly decorated poles that could also be used to secure a wall mat (esaber) placed around the bed, or from which to hang leather bags. The intricate carved designs indicate that these are prestige pieces intended to embellish the tent.

Top: 26. Tuareg man looking into a leather tent with ornamented poles and camel saddle. Photograph by William R Wheeler, Jr. Niger, 1970s.

Tents (ehen) such as these were common in western Niger and eastern Mali. Made from numerous goat hides sewn together, they form a flexible covering placed over poles. To the left is a camel saddle with the protective saddle blanket rolled on the seat. Next to the saddle is a metal bowl used for water or food. Furnishings within tents include the bed, mats, and imported carpets such as the one in the right foreground. A goat-skin bag is hanging from the acacia bush behind the man wearing a gown and turban/veil (tagulmust).

27. Windscreen (esaber) Mali Leather, reeds 97cm x 685cm (38 1/8" x 269 3/4") Cantor Arts Center 1996.288.a

These long mats made from reeds and strips of leather and yarn served multiple functions in a Tuareg tent. Easily moved and tied to poles, the mats were used to protect against wind, sand, and late day sun and to provide privacy around the bed area of the tent. The design uses the triangular and diamond motif found in other Tuareg arts. The excess leather on the back prevents the reeds from breaking by cushioning the mat when it is rolled for transport. The leather also rustles as it moves in the breeze.

28. Camel saddle (tamzak) Kaggo Oumba Tuareg, Kel Ewey Niamey, Niger Wood, leather, metal 80.8cm x 73.3cm x 36cm (32" x 29" x 14") Cantor Arts Center 2005.102

Camel saddles require care and skill in their manufacture. The tamzak is the prestigious version of the simpler terik saddle; it has a circular seat, which rests over an inverted v-shaped frame. The front of the seat has a cross-shaped pommel and the backrest is an arched cantle. The saddle is made of different pieces of wood, ingeniously sewn together with wet rawhide. It is then covered with red and black colored leather. The cantle and the pommel are decorated with strips of pale green leather and red fabric, which are further embellished with strips of brass, silver, or white metal displaying geometric patterns and capped with brass or copper.

29. Tuareg man on camel, Talak, Niger. Photograph by Thomas K. Seligman, 2001.

A Tuareg noble (imageren) is mounted on his camel in a saddle similar to the one in Figure 28. He wears his indigo tagulmust and gown over black cotton pants with yellow machine embroidery around the lower leg. His well-worn sword (takuba) hangs at his side and imported decorative blankets are seen under him. His dark glasses indicate his access to valued trade items.

This man and hundreds of others mounted on camels or driving 4x4 vehicles had come to a dry river bed (wadi or cued) to celebrate the marriage of Mohamed ag Boula in September 2001.

30. Wallet (enafad) Hawa Ibu Ousman Tuareg, Kel Ewey Air, Niger Leather, brass, glue, pigment 140.1cm x 22.3cm with strap (55" x 8 3/4") Cantor Arts Center 1997.49

Wallets like this one, intended to be worn around the neck, are common in many Saharan regions, although the designs and colors vary. They are composed of a small bag with several compartments that can be encased by another bag that slides over it along the leather cords. This style of highly decorated large wallet has come into fashion over the last twenty years. They are generally worn by both men and women on festive occasions.

31. Bag (shekw or abalbed) Tuareg, Kel Assakan Bourem, Mali Leather, pigment 70cm x 40cm (27 1/2" x 15 3/4") Musee d'ethnographie, Neuchatel 48.3.16

Movement is an essential aspect of Tuareg aesthetics. The Tuareg are constantly rearranging their garments and head veils or wraps. When people walk, their clothing moves or billows in the wind. The same is true of women's jewelry, especially hair pendants, which sway with movements of the head. This aesthetic of movement also applies to leather bags, which are richly decorated with fringes and tassels that shake and move with the camel or donkey carrying them.

32. Ladle (tamulat) Tuareg Niger Aluminum, leather L.: 25cm; Diam: 12.5cm (9" x 5") Cantor Arts Center 2002.51

This ladle is made of scrap aluminum and decorated with copper and brass overlays engraved with delicate motifs. The Tuareg usually eat twice a day, and have a small early morning snack. The men usually eat together, and the women and children eat separately. Their diet is largely based on milk and its derivatives, such as buttermilk, cheese, and butter; dried fruit such as dates; and bread, millet porridge, and gruel. Goat and sheep meat is not eaten on a daily basis; rather, it is reserved for festive occasions and roasted either under the hot ashes of the fire or on a spit, or sometimes boiled.

33. Bracelets (elkiss, pl. elkizan) Mohammed Mohammed Tuareg, Kel Geres Niger Silver a) 6cm x 8cm (2 1/3" x 3 1/8"') b) 7.8cm x 6.1cm (3" x 2 1/2") Cantor Arts Center 1997.41.a-b

This style of heavy silver bracelet with multi-faceted ends is typically worn by women in the Tahoua region of western Niger. Jewelry among the Tuareg serves a decorative and social function as well as an economic one. Jewelry is passed down from mother to daughter and is given by husbands to their wives. Serving as a portable bank, in time of economic difficulty jewelry is often sold and in times of plenty it is acquired, often by commissioning inadan to make new pieces. Jewelry is well cared for and repaired and polished as needed.

34. Amulet (tcherot) Tuareg Timbuktu. Mali Silver, glass, stone, plastic 7.4cm x 11.1cm (3" x 4 1/3") UCLA Fowler Museum X88.1465 a & b

Amulets exist in many different forms and materials and are worn by men and women. They are constructed of silver, brass, copper, or leather; the backs of metal amulets are often made of aluminum or tin from discarded cans. While some amulets are flat, others are augmented with two to five levels in a pyramid-like construction. These amulets are profusely decorated with incised and repousse geometrical motifs. Some pieces also incorporate mirrors, which are thought to protect against the Evil Eye.

Amulets can be worn around the upper arm, but most often they are worn around the neck, suspended from braided leather strands, which are sometimes decorated with tassels. They are usually filled with papers bearing Koranic inscriptions and texts, or magical letters and numbers prepared by marabouts as protection for the wearer.

This amulet, or tcherot, from Timbuktu displays the mixing of aesthetic styles that has resulted from the Tuareg coming into contact with the Moors and other peoples in the caravans that come to Timbuktu. These styles blend curved, concave, and oval forms and combine materials such as stone, metal, leather, and plastic to create color contrasts. This particular amulet is embellished with engraved motifs but is also decorated with tanfuk pendants and is suspended from an embroidered necklace decorated with colorful plastic segments.

35. Necklace (taperkit) Tuareg, Kel Air Niger Silver Diamond-shaped pendant 5cm x 5.2cm, L (of necklace): 32.5cm (2" x 2" x 12 3/4") UCLA Fowler Museum X88.1447

Haisha reported to Kristyne Loughran in 1990 that on festive occasions, women "wore crosses, necklaces with the ezamaman beads, this is fine, the tcherot for the akankan hairstyle, and it is supposed to reach the middle of the back. It was not the quantity but wearing the right kinds of things is important. Normally, you should wear jewelry this way."

36. Sword and sheath (tazreit or takuba) (detail) Tuareg Agadez, Niger Steel, leather, fabric, pigment 101.6cm x 12.7cm (40" x 5") Cantor Arts Center 2001.190.a-b

Aman receives his takuba upon reaching puberty and before donning the veil. It is a flat, double-edged cutting sword with a cross hilt. The guard is square, and the pommel is ornamented. The takuba is a prestigious item and is still worn today for special occasions. Smiths sometimes impress motifs on the blades in order to indicate provenance and quality. The most prized blades in the past were those from Toledo in Spain and from Solingen in Germany. Toledo steel usually bears the mark "Carlos V", whereas the Solingen blades bear the "Wolf of Passau" mark, which the Tuareg refer to as "the Lion."

Families pass the swords down from one generation to the next. The hilts of the swords are usually metal and display geometric motifs, whereas the guards are lavishly decorated with impressed designs, and the ends are covered with metal work that is carefully engraved. The sword is said to represent nobility and courage and to possess supernatural powers.

37. Pectoral pendant (tcherot or tereout tan idmarden) Tuareg Tamanrasset, Algeria Silver, leather 23.5cm x 24.5cm x 1.4cm (9 1/4" X 9 2/3" X 1/2") Musee du Quai Branly 70.2001.28.24

This pendant, known as the tereout tan idmarden, is thought to be the most important item worn by an Ahaggar bride on her wedding day. It is essentially a large triangle composed of smaller ones. Sometimes it is suspended from a necklace form known as tasralt. The triangle is considered a potent amulet against evil spirits and is a constant motif in Tuareg art.

38. Caravan en route to Bilma, Niger. Photograph by Gian Carlo Castelli Gattinara, 1967.

   In the azalay [camel caravan] departing today
   those who live softly cannot participate
   only a strong person can participate
   a person who can endure the heat and
      weariness.
   Last year I went there without knowing
   without knowing, I was a salt seeker.
   We arrived at a solitary well called Tafagak
      and filled the goatskin bags
   in the Tenere we immersed ourselves, and in
      the mirages,
   we arrived in a poor desert village
   we load [salt and dates] and we gather
      together we pack, we tie, the camels kneel
      down and we stay
   on the sixth day some were discouraged
   on the tenth day problems arose
   the camels are tired and the charges are
      abandoned
   we are burnt, starving, thirsty
   while crossing [the desert] mercy be upon us

Tuareg poem recorded by Gian Carlo Castelli Gattinara