Arsenic exposure and cognitive performance in Mexican schoolchildren.Recent studies indicate that in several regions of the world, arsenic concentration in water is much higher than accepted levels (Smedley and Kinniburgh 2002). The concern with As contamination of drinking water drinking water supply of water available to animals for drinking supplied via nipples, in troughs, dams, ponds and larger natural water sources; an insufficient supply leads to dehydration; it can be the source of infection, e.g. leptospirosis, salmonellosis, or of poisoning, e.g. is that consumption and use of this water in cooking can increase As exposure in humans (Del Razo et al. 2002). In Mexico, the amount of this contaminant contaminant /con·tam·i·nant/ (kon-tam´in-int) something that causes contamination. contaminant something that causes contamination. in ground water varies from 10 to 5,000 [micro]g/L (Del Razo et al. 1990). Del Razo et al. (1990; 1994) reported on the problem of As-contaminated groundwater in the Lagunera Region of northern Mexico, with > 50% of samples having As concentrations > 50 [micro]g/L, which was the former level of reference set by the World Health Organization (International Programme on Chemical Safety The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is a collaboration between three United Nations bodies—the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme. 2001). The predominant type of As in 90% of the samples was pentavalent pentavalent having a valence of five. pentavalent antimony compounds see antimony. pentavalent organic arsenicals includes the pharmaceuticals arsanilic acid, roxarsone, nitarsone. See also organic arsenical. arsenic. In 1977, the presence of As in potable potable /pot·a·ble/ (po´tah-b'l) fit to drink. po·ta·ble adj. Fit to drink; drinkable. potable fit to drink. water was reported in the city of Torreon, the main city in the Region Lagunera and the site of the most important metallurgic complex of Mexico. As concentration in Torreon's water was up to 4-6 mg/L, far above the present 10-[micro]g/L limit (Cebrian et al. 1994; Mandal and Suzuki 2002). Benin et al. (1999) evaluated heavy metal contamination of soil in three residential areas that surround the smelter and found that As levels had a median of 113 [micro]g/g, and ranged from 78 to 287 [micro]g/g. These levels exceeded the level at which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), independent agency of the U.S. government, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It was established in 1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution, noise pollution, and radiation and to ensure the safe handling and (EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid. EPA abbr. eicosapentaenoic acid EPA, n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic. EPA, n. ) designated cleanup goals for Superfund sites, 5-65 [micro]g/g (U.S. EPA 1997). Approximately 60-90% of the soluble inorganic arsenic (InAs) components are absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract gastrointestinal tract n. The part of the digestive system consisting of the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Gastrointestinal tract (Hall 2002). In humans, InAs metabolism involves at least five metabolites Metabolites Substances produced by metabolism or by a metabolic process. Mentioned in: Interactions that can exert toxic effects (Valenzuela et al. 2005). The measure of urinary As (UAs) excretion is a good biomarker for chronic exposure via drinking water [Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry The United States Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, (ATSDR) is an agency for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services that is directed by a congressional mandate to perform specific functions concerning the effect on public health of hazardous (ATSDR ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry ) 2000]. As concentration in urine, normally < 10 [micro]g/L, can reach as high as 50 [micro]g/L in adults and children living close to metal foundries (Carrizales et al. 2006; Polissar et al. 1990). The negative consequences of As exposure in humans include respiratory, gastrointestinal, hematologic hematological, hematologic pertaining to or emanating from blood cells. hematological tests total and differential white cell counts, hematocrit estimation, erythrocyte count. , hepatic, renal, dermic der·mic adj. Variant of dermal. , neurologic, and immunologic effects (ASTDR 2000; Garcia-Vargas and Hernandez-Zavala 1996; International Programme on Chemical Safety 2001), many of which continue even after the contaminant source is controlled (Diaz-Barriga et al. 1997). As can also have detrimental effects on the central nervous system and cognitive development in children (International Programme on Chemical Safety 2001). Acute As exposure affects sensory nerves Sensory nerves Sensory or afferent nerves carry impulses of sensation from the periphery or outward parts of the body to the brain. Sensations include feelings, impressions, and awareness of the state of the body. as well as the long axon neurons, which results in the clinical manifestation of numb extremities. Neurologic tests have shown nerve axonophathy and demyelination demyelination /de·my·elin·a·tion/ (de-mi?e-li-na´shun) destruction, removal, or loss of the myelin sheath of a nerve or nerves. Called also myelinolysis. (Franzblau and Lilis 1989; Rodriguez et al. 2003; Yung 1984). As also affects the content of brain monoamines, and the concentrations of dopamine dopamine (dōp`əmēn), one of the intermediate substances in the biosynthesis of epinephrine and norepinephrine. See catecholamine. dopamine One of the catecholamines, widely distributed in the central nervous system. and serotonin in the hippocampus hippocampus fabulous marine creature; half fish, half horse. [Rom. Myth. and Art: Hall, 154] See : Monsters , hypothalamus hypothalamus (hī'pəthăl`əməs), an important supervisory center in the brain, rich in ganglia, nerve fibers, and synaptic connections. It is composed of several sections called nuclei, each of which controls a specific function. , cerebral cortex cerebral cortex Layer of gray matter that constitutes the outer layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for integrating sensory impulses and for higher intellectual functions. , and the striatum striatum /stri·a·tum/ (stri-a´tum) corpus striatum.stria´tal stri·a·tum n. pl. stri·a·ta (Itoh et al. 1990; Mejia et al. 1997; Rodriguez et al. 2003). Few reports have suggested a detrimental effect of As exposure on cognitive development and function, including disturbed visual perception, problems with visuomotor visuomotor /vis·uo·mo·tor/ (-mo´ter) pertaining to connections between visual and motor processes. vis·u·o·mo·tor adj. Of or relating to motor activity dependent on or involving sight. integration, psychomotor psychomotor /psy·cho·mo·tor/ (si?ko-mo´ter) pertaining to motor effects of cerebral or psychic activity. psy·cho·mo·tor adj. 1. speed, attention, speech, and memory. (Calderon et al. 2001; Rodriguez et al. 2003; Tsai et al. 2003). In this regard, the effects of As are similar to and could be confounded with the effects of other environmental contaminants such as lead. In fact, in many regions of the world, As exposure co-occurs with exposure to other contaminants such as lead (Carrizales et al. 2006; Diawara et al. 2006). Poorer performance on a range of cognitive tests has been reported in children with low to moderate lead exposure in Torreon (Kordas et al. 2004) and other settings (Canfield et al. 2003; De Burbure 2006; Lanphear et al. 2000). In this study we identified demographic and nutritional factors that are associated with UAs concentration in school-age children. We also investigated the influence of As exposure on cognitive function cognitive function Neurology Any mental process that involves symbolic operations–eg, perception, memory, creation of imagery, and thinking; CFs encompasses awareness and capacity for judgment in these children. Methods Subjects and design of the study. The study sample consisted of 602 children 6-8 years of age who attended first grade in nine public elementary schools located within 3.5 km of a metallurgic smelter complex in the city of Torreon, Mexico. Parents of all study subjects gave informed written consent before being enrolled. This study area was selected because the foundry contributes with toxic substances that affect a large proportion of the population. The effects of lead exposure in this population have been described previously (Dorea 2004; Flora 2002; Kordas et al. 2004, 2006; Rico et al. 2006; Rosado et al. 2006). Each child was examined to obtain anthropometry anthropometry (ănthrəpŏm`ətrē), technique of measuring the human body in terms of dimensions, proportions, and ratios such as those provided by the cephalic index. , nutritional status nutritional status, n the assessment of the state of nourishment of a patient or subject. by biochemical measurements in serum, levels of blood lead (PbB) and UAs, and cognitive performance. Complete blood and urine samples were available for 591 children. The study was approved by the Human Subjects Research Committee at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health is part of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. It was the first institution of its kind in the world. Founded in 1916 by William H. Welch and John D. and the Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition in Mexico. Anthropometry. Measurements were carried out according to standard methods (Habicht 1974). A trained person took all height and weight measurements. Weight was measured to the nearest 10 g using an upright scale (Model Express Plus, Torino, Mexico City, Mexico) before lunchtime to avoid variations due to immediate food ingestion ingestion /in·ges·tion/ (-chun) the taking of food, drugs, etc., into the body by mouth. in·ges·tion n. 1. The act of taking food and drink into the body by the mouth. 2. . Height was measured with a 3-m standardized measurement board to the nearest 1 mm. All participants were measured without shoes and wearing only their school uniform without any sweater or jacket. Biochemical measures. A venous blood venous blood n. Abbr. v Blood that has passed through the capillaries of various tissues other than the lungs, is found in the veins, in the right chambers of the heart, and in pulmonary arteries, and is usually dark red as a result of a sample was collected from each child at the school, after an overnight fast. After blood sample collection, children were given a snack and a juice box. Blood was collected in 5-mL sodium heparin vacutainer trace-metal free tubes (Becton Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). Hemoglobin (Hb) was analyzed at the school with a HemoCue Photometer Photometer An instrument used for making measurements of light, or electromagnetic radiation, in the visible range. In general, photometers may be divided into two classifications: laboratory photometers, which are usually fixed in position and yield results (HemoCue Inc., Mission Viejo, CA, USA). Samples were transported in a cooler to be processed in the laboratory on the same day. Serum was obtained and aliquots stored at -80[degrees]C until analysis was done. We analyzed serum ferritin ferritin /fer·ri·tin/ (-i-tin) the iron-apoferritin complex, one of the chief forms in which iron is stored in the body. fer·ri·tin n. using an immunoradiographic method (Coat-A-count Ferritin IRMA An earlier trade name for a variety of host connectivity hardware and software products originally developed by Digital Communications Associates (DCA) and later acquired by Attachmate Corporation. Irma was not an acronym, rather it was the lady's name. ). We analyzed zinc and copper concentration with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer spectrophotometer, instrument for measuring and comparing the intensities of common spectral lines in the spectra of two different sources of light. See photometry; spectroscope; spectrum. (PerkinElmer Analyst 700, PerkinElmer, Norwalk, CT, USA). PbB and UAs were analyzed at the Center for Research and Advanced Studies in the National Polytechnic Institute • • [ in Mexico. This laboratory participates in two quality control programs, the Trace Elements Trace elements A group of elements that are present in the human body in very small amounts but are nonetheless important to good health. They include chromium, copper, cobalt, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc. Trace elements are also called micronutrients. External Quality Assessment Scheme at University of Surrey The University of Surrey is a public university in Guildford, England. It received its charter on 9 September 1966, and was situated near Battersea Park in south-west London. The institution was known as Battersea College of Technology before gaining university status. , United Kingdom, and the Interlaboratory Program of Quality Control at Zaragoza, Spain. For PbB measurement, we analyzed samples by duplicate using atomic absorption spectrophotometry spectrophotometry Branch of spectroscopy dealing with measurement of radiant energy transmitted or reflected by a body as a function of wavelength. The measurement is usually compared to that transmitted or reflected by a system that serves as a standard. (Zeeman 5100; PerkinElmer, Norwalk, CT, USA) (Miller et al. 1987), and those with a CV > 5% were re-analyzed. Lead in bovine blood (standard reference material 955b; National Institute of Standards and Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology, governmental agency within the U.S. Dept. of Commerce with the mission of "working with industry to develop and apply technology, measurements, and standards" in the national interest. , Gaithersburg, MD, USA) was used as the standard reference. For As measurement, a urine sample was collected in the morning after subjects had fasted overnight. It was collected in a plastic container with 100-mL capacity. Samples were transported with ice to the laboratory and a 25-mL aliquot aliquot (al-ee-kwoh) adj. a definite fractional share, usually applied when dividing and distributing a dead person's estate or trust assets. (See: share) was frozen at -20[degrees]C until analysis. On the day of analysis samples were unfrozen and warmed to 37[degrees]C in a container with boiling water; 2.5-mL aliquots with urine were placed in glass containers and then 2.5 mL HCl 2 M (6% w/v) was added. Samples were covered with clock glass and heated during 5 hr to 80[degrees]C. Then they were cooled to room temperature and transferred to a volumetric flask of 5 mL using HCl 2 M for dilution (Del Razo et al. 1999). The analysis was done with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (PerkinElmer 3100; PerkinElmer), according to the procedure reported by Crecelius et al. (1986). UAs analysis included InAs, monomethylarsenic (MMAs), and dimethylarsenic (DMAs) and the sum of all metabolic species of arsenic. Zinc protoporphirin (ZPP zpp Zirconium Production Plant ZPP Zinc Proto-Porphyrin ZPP Zirconium Potassium Perchlorate ZPP Zero Probability Polynomial (complexity theory, randomized algorithms) ZPP Zero Padded Prefix ) was measured in whole blood with ZP Hematofluorometer (AVIV Biomedical bi·o·med·i·cal adj. 1. Of or relating to biomedicine. 2. Of, relating to, or involving biological, medical, and physical sciences. , Lakewood, NJ, USA). Zinc deficiency zinc deficiency (zinkˑ d  ·fiˑ ·sh was considered when serum zinc was [less than or
equal to]65 mg/dL, anemia when Hb was < 12.4 g/dL, and ferritin
deficiency [less than or equal to]12 [micro]g/L and copper deficiency
when serum copper was < 80 [micro]g/L. Elevated ZPP was considered
when [greater than or equal to]70 [micro]mol ZP/mol heme, high As
concentration when As in urinary samples was > 50 [micro]g/L, and PbB
concentration was considered high when > 10 [micro]g/dL.
Cognitive measures. Cognitive evaluations included tests of memory, attention, problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. , and vocabulary processes. Each participant required two working sessions to answer 14 pen-and-paper or computer touch-screen tests covering the various aspects of cognitive functioning. All children had previous experience with computers. The first session consisted of the Coding, Digit Span, and Arithmetic subtests of the Weschsler Intelligence Scale for Children Revised Mexican Version (WISCRM) (Wechsler 1974, 1981), a test of number and letter sequencing (Reitan and Wolfson 1992), and the Cognitive Abilities Test (a computerbased test with four tasks: Stimulus discrimination, Sternberg memory, Visual Memory Span, and Visual Search) (Detterman 1988). These tests were all applied in this order on day 1. Day 2 consisted of a curriculumbased Math Achievement Test (MAT), a test of Visual-Spatial Abilities with Figure Design, and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test The PPVT-III is an untimed, individual intelligence test, orally administered in 11 to 12 minutes or less. Extensively revised, this test measures an individual's receptive (hearing) vocabulary for Standard American English. (PPVT-Spanish Edition) (Dunn et al. 1986), applied in this order. The WISC-RM and the PPVT PPVT Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test were validated with Mexican-American populations; the rest of the tasks were piloted among 1st and 2nd graders in a public elementary school in Mexico City before the project began. Each of these tests has been described in detail in a previous publication showing the effects of PbB concentrations on cognitive performance of these children (Kordas et al. 2004, 2006; Rico et al. 2006). Demographics and socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. . A questionnaire was given to parents or caregivers of all children to identify the sociodemographic characteristics of the families. The questionnaire included questions to determine crowding, housing conditions, family possessions, and parents' education level. These characteristics, except parents' education level, were used to build a socioeconomic status (SES) index by transforming each one into a three-category and ordinal (mathematics) ordinal - An isomorphism class of well-ordered sets. variable, and summing points for each individual to build a scale between 5 and 12 points. Low SES was assigned to a sum of 5-7 points, medium SES level to 8-9 points, and high SES to 10-12 points. Statistical methods. We performed statistical analysis with Stata version 8 (StataCorp., College Station, TX, USA). Pearson correlations and analysis of variance (ANOVA anova see analysis of variance. ANOVA Analysis of variance, see there ) between groups of demographic variables were performed to evaluate their association with UAs or the difference between different UAs concentration (50 [micro]g/L cutoff). To evaluate the association of UAs and its metabolites with cognitive performance, we log-transformed the cognitive tests scores when required to fit a normal distribution. Three tests were omitted in the analysis: It was not feasible to analyze the data because variables couldn't be normalized. Those that fitted a normal distribution were evaluated with linear regression Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. models, and those that did not were evaluated with logistic regression at the cutoff points based on the median value. Models were adjusted for variables that were found to be significantly correlated with at least two of the cognitive tests scores at p < 0.05: children's age, children's sex, mother's school education level, Hb concentration, and PbB. The interaction between UAs and PbB was also included in the models when it was significant at p < 0.10. The models adjusted the standard errors for clustering on children's school to correct the intraschool correlation. These analysis were also performed stratified stratified /strat·i·fied/ (strat´i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat·i·fied adj. Arranged in the form of layers or strata. by subjects with UAs concentration [less than or equal to]50 [micro]g/L and > 50 [micro]g/L. Because of the high influence of sex in UAs concentrations, the models were also stratified for boys and girls boys and girls mercurialisannua. to investigate individual effects; in these analyses sex was removed from other adjusting variables. Collinearity collinearity very high correlation between variables. diagnosis was run for all models to confirm the absence of multicollinearity within independent variables. Results Demographic and biochemical characteristics of subjects are shown in Table 1. The mean [+ or -] SD of UAs was 58.1 [+ or -] 33.2 [micro]g/L; 52% of the children had UAs concentrations > 50 [micro]g/L, and 10% had UAs concentrations > 100 [micro]g/L. Mean PbB concentration was 11.5 [+ or -] 6.3 [micro]g/dL, and 50.7% of children had PbB above 10 [micro]g/dL. The percentages of children with Hb, ferritin, and zinc deficiency were 9.8, 11.7, and 27.7%, respectively.
Table 1. Characteristics of study participants.
Variables Value
No. 591
Percent male 54
Age (months) 83.4 [+ or -]4.4
Socioeconomic level (%)
Low 27.5
Medium 50.1
High 22.4
Mother's school level (%)
Primary or no education 25.6
Junior high school 55
High school or college 19.4
Weight for height: < 2 SD (%) 3
Weight for age: < 2 SD (%) 1.2
Height for age: < 2 SD (%) 2.2
Hb (g/dL) 13.4 [+ or -] 0.8
< 12.4 (%) 9.8
Ferritin ([mu]g/L) 27.2 [+ or -] 16.1
< 12 (%) 11.7
ZPP ([mu]mol/mol heme) 65.8 [+ or -]22.2
[greater or equal to] 70 (%) 29.3
Zinc ([mu]g/dL) 80.1 [+ or -]24.7
< 65 (%) 27.7
Copper ([mu]g/dL) 106.8 [+ or -]21.0
< 80 (%) 11
PbB concentration ([mu]g/dL) 11.5 [+ or -]6.3
[greater or equal to] 10 (%) 50.7
nAs (ug/L) 8.7 [+ or -]6.1
MMA (ug/L) 7.7 [+ or -]5.2
DMA (ug/L) 41.7 [+ or -]24.1
UAs (ug/L) 58.1 [+ or -]33.2
UAs > 50 (%) 52.3
UAs > 100 (%) 9.8
Values are mean [+ or -] SD or percent.
The association of sociodemographic variables with UAs is shown in Table 2. A significant difference was found between boys and girls in all As compounds: UAs was 11.85 [micro]g/L higher in boys than in girls (p < 0.01). UAs concentration was also associated with SES: UAs in the low SES group was significantly higher than in medium and high SES groups (p < 0.01). Children of parents who had a high school or college education excreted less UAs than children of those who had primary or no education (p < 0.01). Children's age was also associated with UAs concentration; younger children (6 years of age) excreted more UAs and MMAs (p < 0.01) and more InAs and DMAs (p < 0.05) than older children (7-8 years of age). PbB correlated positively with UAs concentration (Pearson R = 0.158, p < 0.01) (Tables 2 & 3). Nutritional status indicators were not related to UAs concentrations (Table 3).
Table 2. Urinary arsenic comparison among sociodemographic, hemoglobin,
and PbB concentration groups [no. (mean [+ or -] SD)].
Variables No InAs MMA DMA UAs
Sex Male 319 9.4 8.5 45.6 63.5
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.9(a) 5.5(a) 26.0(a) 35.9(a)
Female 272 7.8 6.8 37.1 51.7
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
4.9(b) 4.8(b) 20.7(b) 28.5(b)
SES
Low 154 10.3 9.3 48.6 68.1
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.7(a) 5.8(a) 26.2(a) 36.7(a)
Medium 280 8.1 7.3 39.7 55.6
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
5.6(b) 5.0(b) 23.8(b) 32.4(b)
High 125 8.2 7.2 37.9 53.3
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.4(b) 4.7(b) 21.4(b) 30.2(b)
Mother's
school leve
Primary or no 146 9.5 8.5 45.6 63.7
education [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.8(c) 5.7(c) 25.9(a) 35.6(a)
Junior high 314 8.7 7.7 41.8 58.0
school [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.2 5.1 24.5 33.8
High school or 111 7.7 7.2 37.6 52.5
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
college 4.8(d) 4.7(d) 20.8(b) 28.7(b)
Age group
(ye(a)rs)
6 297 9.3 8.3 44.2 61.7
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.8(c) 5.4(a) 24.9(c) 34.7(a)
7-8 294 8.0 7.2 39.2 54.3
[+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
5.3(d) 4.8(b) 23.0(d) 31.3(b)
PbB
concentration
s 10 293 7.8 7.1 38.5 53.4
[micro]g [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
/dL 5.1(a) 4.9(a) 22.1(a) 30.3(a)
> 10 297 9.6 8.4 44.7 62.6
[micro]g/dL [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -] [+ or -]
6.9(b) 5.3(b) 25.6(b) 35.4(b)
(a),(b)Different letters represent significant differences among rows
at p < 0.01. (c),(d)Different letters represent significant differences
among rows at p < 0.05.
Table 3. Anthropometric and nutritional variables in children with
high and low total urinary arsenic concentrations.
UAs a 50 UAs < 50
[micro]g/L [micro]g/L
Variables No Mean No Mean
[+ or -]SD [+ or -]SD
Height for age 308 -0.10 281 -0.13
(Z-score) [+ or -]0.92 [+ or -] 1.02
ZPP 308 66.36 282 65.09
([micro]mol/mol [+ or -]24.99 [+ or -] 18.81
heme)
Hb (g/dL) 309 13.36 282 13.35r
[+ or -]0.81 [+ or -]0.83
Ferritin 290 27.31 264 27.13
([mu]g/dL) [+ or -] 16.65 [+ or -] 15.55
Zinc ([mu]g/dL) 299 78.79 267 81.63
[+ or -]23.09 [+ or -]26.27
Copper 260 107.78 239 105.75
([mu]g/dL) [+ or -]20.88 [+ or -]21.10
Weight (kg) 309 25.28 282 24.78
[+ or -]5.47 [+ or -]5.69
Height (cm) 309 120.89 282 120.82
[+ or -]5.22 [+ or -]5.81
Head 309 50.65 282 50.54
circumference [+ or -] 1.47 [+ or -] 1.38
(cm)
Knee height 309 36.86 282 36.82
(cm) [+ or -]2.05 [+ or -]2.19
No significant differences were found between groups (one-way ANOVA).
The overall unadjusted cognitive scores stratified by UAs concentration levels are shown in Table 4. Children in the group with high UAs concentration presented lower scores in 7 of 11 cognitive tests than children with low UAs concentration.
Table 4. Cognitive scores of children stratified by UAs concentration
[mean [+ or -] SD (minimum-maximum)].
Cognitive tests Overall Children with
UAs < 50
[micro]g/L
Math Achievement 31.35 [+ or -] 32.27 [+ or -]
Test 7.50 (3-52) 7.69 (8-52)
Visual-Spatial 18.31 [+ or -] 18.88 [+ or -]
Abilities with 5.15 (2-34) 5.16 (3-34)
Figure Design
WISC-RM Arithmetic 7.41 [+ or -] 7.26 [+ or -]
Subscale 3.62 (1-17) 3.66 (1-17)
Peabody Picture 103.19 [+ or -] 105.20 [+ or -]
Vocabulary Test 15.65 (55-145) 16.11
(55-145)
WISC-RM Digit Span 9.10 [+ or -] 9.46 [+ or -]
Subscale 3.63 (1-19) 3.73 (1-19)
Sternberg Memory 12.14 [+ or -] 12.30 [+ or -]
(correct trials) 2.94 (4-20) 3.01 (4-20)
Visual Memory Span 2 [+ or -]0.52 2.03 [+ or -]
(correct trials) (0.69-3.37) 0.51
(0.69-3.37)
Stimulus 0.57 [+ or -] 0.63 [+ or -]
Discrimination 0.50 (0-1) 0.48 (0-1)
(correct trials <
19 vs. [greater
than or equal to]
19)
WISC-RM Coding 2.26 [+ or -] 2.29 [+ or -]
Subscale 0.59 (1-3.71) 0.58
(1.07-3.71)
Visual Search 5.03 [+ or -] 5.23 [+ or -]
(correct minus 1.51 (1-10.82) 1.47
incorrect minus (1.14-10.82)
omitted trials)
Letter Sequencing 0.48 [+ or -] 0.55 [+ or -]
(correct trials 0 0.50 (0-1) 0.50 (0-1)
vs. [greater than
or equal to] 1)
Cognitive tests Children with
UAs > 50
[micro]g/L
Math Achievement 30.57 [+ or -]
Test 7.20 (3-49)*
Visual-Spatial 17.84 [+ or -]
Abilities with 5.08 (2-31)*
Figure Design
WISC-RM Arithmetic 7.59 [+ or -]
Subscale 3.57 (1-17)
Peabody Picture 101.67 [+ or -]
Vocabulary Test 14.92
(55-140)*
WISC-RM Digit Span 8.80 [+ or -]
Subscale 3.55 (2-18)*
Sternberg Memory 11.98 [+ or -]
(correct trials) 2.86 (5-20)
Visual Memory Span 1.97 [+ or -]
(correct trials) 0.53
(0.69-3.26)
Stimulus 0.52 [+ or -]
Discrimination 0.50 (0-1)*
(correct trials <
19 vs. [greater
than or equal to]
19)
WISC-RM Coding 2.23 [+ or -]
Subscale 0.61
(1-3.71)
Visual Search 4.84 [+ or -]
(correct minus 1.50 (1-8.99)*
incorrect minus
omitted trials)
Letter Sequencing 0.41 [+ or -]
(correct trials 0 0.49 (0-1)*
vs. [greater than
or equal to] 1)
Letter Sequencing (correct trials 0 vs. [greater than or equal to]1)
0.48 [+ or -] 0.50 (0-1) 0.55 [+ or -] 0.50 (0-1) 0.41 [+ or -] 0.49
(0-1)* *Difference between children with UAs < 50 and children
UAs > 50 [micro]g/L is significant at p < 0.05.
Table 5 shows the covariate-adjusted relationship between UAs concentration and cognitive performance. The analysis is also presented separately by sex and by UAs below and above 50 [micro]g/L. Overall, a significant inverse association was found between UAs and the Visual-Spatial Abilities with Figure Design, the PPVT, the WISC-RM Digit Span subscale, and the Visual Search and Letter Sequencing Tests (p < 0.05). In the analysis stratified by UAs concentration, UAs was significantly associated with the PPVT, the WISC-RM Digit Span Subscale, the Sternberg Memory Test, and the Visual Memory Span at UAs levels [less than or equal to]50 [micro]g/L. In children with UAs > 50 [micro]g/L, the Visual-Spatial Abilities with Figure Design, the Stimulus Discrimination, and Letter Sequencing Tests were significant at p < 0.05. For boys, the Visual-Spatial Abilities with Figure Design and the PPVT, Visual Search, and Letter Sequencing Tests had an inverse association with UAs (p < 0.05). And for girls, there was a significant negative association of UAs only with the WISC-RM Digit Span Subscale (p < 0.05). The significant associations of each metabolite metabolite, organic compound that is a starting material in, an intermediate in, or an end product of metabolism. Starting materials are substances, usually small and of simple structure, absorbed by the organism as food. with the cognitive function tests are also shown in Table 5 (type of arsenic in parentheses See parenthesis. parentheses - See left parenthesis, right parenthesis. ). In general, organic forms of As in urine affected more cognitive tests than did the inorganic forms.
Table 5. Covariate-adjusted association between UAs ([micro]g/dL) and
tests of cognitive function.
Overall Children Children
with UAs < with UAs >
50 50
[micro]g/L [micro]g/L
Cognitive
test (n = 557) (n = 267) (n= 290)
Linear
regressions
[beta
coefficient
(95% CI)]
Problem
Solving
and Vocabulary
Math -0.023 -0.098* -0.015
Achievement (-0.052 (-0.199 to (-0.047 to
to 0.003) 0.018)
0.006)
(MMA*) (DMA,*
MMA*)
Visual-Spatial -0.024** -0.018 -0.028**
Abilities with (-0.045 (-0.096 to (-0.053 to
to 0.061) -0.004)
-0.004)
Figure Design (DMA**) (DMA**)
WISC-RM -0.001 -0.014 -0.006
Arithmetic (-0.016 (-0.051 to (-0.029 to
0.014) 0.024) 0.016)
Subscale
Peabody -0.064** -0.185# -0.058*
Picture
Vocabulary (-0.115 (-0.293 to (-0.120 to
to -0.078) 0.004)
-0.013)
Test (InAs,** (DMA,** (DMA*)
DMA,** MMA*)
MMA*)
Memory
WISC-RM Digit -0.014** -0.037** -0.012
Span Subscale (-0.025 (-0.065 to (-0.037 to
to -0.010) 0.012)
-0.002)
(DMA,* (DMA**)
MMA**)
Sternberg -0.002 -0.027** 0.002
Memory (-0.007 (-0.053 to (-0.008 to
to -0.002) 0.012)
0.004)
(correct (DMA*)
trials)
Visual Memory -0.000 -0.003** -0.001
Span (-0.002 (-0.007 to (-0.002 to
to 0.000) 0.003)
0.001)
(correct (DMA**)
trials)(a)
Attention
WISC-RM Coding 0.000 0.000 -0.001
Subscale(a) (-0.001 (-0.005 to (-0.003 to
to 0.005) 0.002)
0.000)
Visual Search (DMA*) -0.008 -0.006*
(correct minus -0.007# (-0.022 to (-0.012 to
0.005) 0.000)
(-0.011
to
-0.002)
incorrect (InAs,# (DMA**)
minus
omitted DMA,**
trials)(a) MMA**)
Logistic
regressions
[odds ratio
(95% CI)]
Memory
Stimulus 0.998 0.982 1.004**
Discrimination (0.993 to (0.957 to (1.000 to
1.004) 1.008) 1.008)
(correct (DMA*)
trials
< 19 vs.
[greater than or equal to] 19)
Attention
Letter 0.992# 0.992 0.993**
Sequencing (0.987 (0.963 to (0.988 to
to 1.021) 0.999)
0.996)
(correct (DMA,# (DMA#)
trials
0 vs. [greater than or equal to] 1) MMA#)
Males Females
Cognitive
test (n = 306) (n = 251)
Linear
regressions
[beta
coefficient (95% CI)]
Problem Solving
and Vocabulary
Math -0.022* -0.019
Achievement (-0.046 to 0.001) (-0.063 to 0.026)
(DMA,*
MMA#)
Visual-Spatial -0.026** -0.019
Abilities with (-0.048 to -0.003) (-0.045 to 0.007)
Figure Design (DMA*)
WISC-RM -0.000 -0.003
Arithmetic (-0.020 to 0.020) (-0.021 to 0.015)
Subscale
Peabody Picture -0.058** -0.070
Vocabulary (-0.105 to -0.010) (-0.169 to 0.029)
Test (DMA,**
MMA**)
Memory
WISC-RM Digit -0.008 -0.039#
Span Subscale (-0.025 to 0.008) (-0.062 to -0.016)
(DMA,#
PbB x
UAs**)
Sternberg 0.002 -0.008
Memory (-0.006 to -0.010) (-0.020 to 0.005)
(correct
trials)
Visual Memory 0.000 -0.001
Span (-0.002 to 0.002) (-0.004 to 0.002)
(correct
trials)(a)
Attention
WISC-RM Coding 0.000 -0.002
Subscale(a) (-0.001 to 0.002) (-0.004.to 0.001)
Visual Search -0.016** 0.010*
(correct minus (-0.029 to -0.003) (0.000 to 0.019)
to
incorrect minus (DMA,# (PbB x
omitted MMA,** UAs#)
trials)(a) PbB x
UAs*)
Logistic
regressions
[odds ratio
(95% CI)]
Memory
Stimulus 1.002 0.990
Discrimination (0.995 to 1.009) (0.977 to 1.002)
(correct trials
< 19 vs.
[greater than
or equal to]
19)
Attention
Letter 0.988# 0.998
Sequencing (0.982 to 0.993) (0.990 to 1.007)
(correct trials (InAs,**
0 vs. [greater DMA,#
than or equal MMA#)
to] 1)
(a)These cognitive tests were log-transformed to achieve the normal
distribution. Beta coefficient significant at
*p < 0.1, **p < 0.05, #p < 0.01.
Discussion We found an association of UAs with several cognition tests such as Visual-Spatial Abilities with Figure Design, the PPVT, the WISC-RM Digit Span subscale, and the Visual Search and Letter Sequencing Tests. These associations were independent from sociodemographic variables, nutritional status, and PbB. When analysis was stratified by UAs, some tests were associated with UAs at concentrations < 50 [micro]g/L. However, some tests were not associated with the high UAs group even though the association was significant in the low UAs group and in the total sample; this might be attributed to the power reduction and increased variability in the high UAs group compared with the variability in the low UAs group. Cognitive tests that showed association with UAs represent complex cognitive processes Cognitive processes Thought processes (i.e., reasoning, perception, judgment, memory). Mentioned in: Psychosocial Disorders such as memory, problem solving, and attention. Previous studies had shown an adverse relationship between As exposure and IQ (Calderon et al. 1999) and neurobehavioral performance (Rodriguez et al. 2003). Results from our study confirm earlier findings by Calderon et al. (2001) and Tsai et al. (2003) relating As exposure to memory alterations. These associations occurring even in children without elevated As concentrations could be caused by several possible mechanisms. As crosses the blood-brain barrier blood-brain barrier n. Abbr. BBB A physiological mechanism that alters the permeability of brain capillaries so that some substances, such as certain drugs, are prevented from entering brain tissue, while other substances are allowed to and has a wide range of effects on the white matter in the brain (Osterberg and Kernohan 1934). Evidence also shows that arsenite inhibits the synthesis and liberation of acetylcholine acetylcholine (əsēt'əlkō`lēn), a small organic molecule liberated at nerve endings as a neurotransmitter. It is particularly important in the stimulation of muscle tissue. in brain slices (Kobayashi et al. 1987), and increases the monoamine monoamine /mono·amine/ (mon?o-ah-men´) an amine containing one amino group, e.g., serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine. mon·o·am·ine n. activity in rat nervous system (Mejia et al. 1997; Tripathi et al. 1997). The increase in one monoamine, 5-hydroxyindole-3 acetic acid acetic acid (əsē`tĭk), CH3CO2H, colorless liquid that has a characteristic pungent odor, boils at 118°C;, and is miscible with water in all proportions; it is a weak organic carboxylic acid (see carboxyl group). , is potentially neurotoxic neurotoxic pertaining to or emanating from a neurotoxin. neurotoxic state a case of poisoning by a neurotoxin. neurotoxic adjective (Jones et al. 2005; Mejia et al. 1997). Whatever the mechanism, the present investigation shows that exposure to As is associated with deficits in cognitive performance among school-age children, even at low exposure levels, affecting complex cognitive processes such as memory and problem solving, which could potentially interfere with performance at school. We found different associations between UAs and cognitive tests in boys and girls. Several cognitive tests were negatively associated with UAs only in boys, and the Digit Span subscale, an evaluation of memory, was significantly associated with UAs only in girls. InAs seemed to affect only boys in the Letter Sequencing Test. According to ANOVA to detect differences in cognitive performance between boys and girls (data not shown), differences in associations of cognitive tests with UAs between boys and girls did not seem to be related with differences in sex. Although it has also been reported by others (Chen et al. 2003; Kristiansen et al. 1997; Vahter et al. 2007), it is unclear why boys would excrete excrete /ex·crete/ (eks-kret´) to throw off or eliminate by a normal discharge, such as waste matter. ex·crete v. To eliminate waste material from the body. more UAs, which thereby affects their cognitive performance. Values are beta coefficient [95% confidence interval confidence interval, n a statistical device used to determine the range within which an acceptable datum would fall. Confidence intervals are usually expressed in percentages, typically 95% or 99%. (CI)] of total urinary arsenic from a multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. , or odds ratio from a logistic regression, with cognitive test score as the dependent variable. Regression models were adjusted for age in months, sex, mother's school level, Hb concentration, PbB concentration, and for PbB concentration x UAs interaction when it was significant at p < 0.10. CIs were adjusted for clustering on children's school. Significant effect of UAs metabolites on cognition functions or PbB concentration x UAs interaction is shown in parentheses. SES had an inverse association with UAs in our study. Ahmad et al. (2001) also found an inverse association between arsenicosis and SES and education level, probably due to the lack of access to As-free water. In other studies, As was also related to nutritional status of participants. Sikder et al. (2005) found that most of the arsenicosis patients in their study also suffered from malnutrition. Minamoto et al. (2005) reported that children living in households with As-contaminated tube well water had lower height for their age than children living in noncontaminated households. Similarly, Islam et al. (2004) found higher rates of underweight Underweight An situation where a portfolio does not hold a sufficient amount of securities to satisfy the accepted benchmark of the portfolio's asset allocation strategy. Notes: in individuals with arsenicosis than in controls, and concluded that poor nutritional status increased the complications of arsenicosis. In our study we did not find an association between UAs excretion and height, weight, and iron and other minerals' concentration in serum. The lack of association was probably owing to the fact that our subjects were generally well nourished. Only 2% were stunted and 10% were anemic; and the rate of children with high concentration of UAs was the same among anemic and nonanemic children. 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E-mail: jlrosado@ avantel.net We thank A. Cebrian, G. Concha concha /con·cha/ (kong´kah) pl. con´chae [L.] a shell-shaped structure. concha of auricle , B. Gamez, J. Gavino, M. Gutierrez, G. Leon, A. Luna, F. Marentes, R.I. Morales, C. Sosa, G. Torres, and R. Sanchez for help in data collection, and E. Vera for chemical analyses. This research was partially supported by funding from the Spencer Foundation, Chicago, IL, USA. The authors declare they have no competing financial interests. Received 6 December 2006; accepted 21 May 2007. Jorge L. Rosado, (1) Dolores Dolores (or Delores) was a common given name (until the 1960s in the USA); it is cognate with the English word "dolorous" (meaning sorrowful) and equivalent in meaning. Ronquillo,(1) Katarzyna Kordas, (2) Olga Rojas, (3) Javier Alatorre, (3) Patricia Lopez, (4) GonzaloGarcia-Vargas, (5) Maria del CarmenCaamano, (1) Mariano E.Cebrian, (6) and Rebecca J.Stoltzfus (2) (1) School of Natural Sciences, Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Division of Nutritional Sciences, Queretaro, Mexico; (2) Division of Nutritional Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
For other places or objects named Ithaca, see Ithaca (disambiguation). , USA; (3) Department of Psychology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; (4) Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Medicas y Nutricion, Mexico City, Mexico; (5) Medical School, Universidad Juarez del Estado de Durango, Gomez Palacio, Mexico; (6) Centro de Investigacion y Estudios Avanzados, National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City, Mexico |
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