Are mating strategies and mating tactics independent constructs?This study explored the constructs of mating tactics and mating strategies. These constructs are conceptually related but distinct. In current research, the measurement of one of these constructs often is viewed as being indicative of the other. Therefore, an exploration of these constructs will enhance understanding of study outcomes in this research area. Self-report measures of mating tactics and strategies were administered to 183 female partieipants, aged 18-45 years. The Escalating Sexual Encounters Questionnaire (ESEQ, Greer & Buss, 1994), the Derogatis Sexual Experience Scale (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1979), the Sexual Strategies Measure (SSM SSM abbr. surface-to-surface missile , Schmitt, 1996), the Sociosexual Orientation Sociosexual orientation in social psychology refers to individual differences in the tendency to prefer either unrestricted sex (without the necessity of love) or restricted sex (only in the context of a long term loving relationship). Inventory (Simpson & Gangestad, 1991), and two questions assessing age at menarche menarche /me·nar·che/ (me-nahr´ke) establishment or beginning of the menstrual function.menar´cheal me·nar·che n. The first menstrual period, usually during puberty. and total number of sexual partners were administered. Exploratory factor analysis with oblique o·blique adj. Situated in a slanting position; not transverse or longitudinal. oblique slanting; inclined. rotation produced two distinct factors reflecting a "tactic"-based factor and a "strategy"-based factor. This finding is consistent with viewing mating tactics and mating strategies as distinct and varying independently. An important implication of this study is that measurement of mating tactics is not indicative of underlying mating strategies in women. Further, four patterns of female mating styles emerged upon review of participant factor scores and are discussed within an evolutionary context. Are Mating Strategies and Mating Tactics Independent Constructs? The evolutionary approach In computer science, an evolutionary approach is an acquisition strategy that defines, develops, produces or acquires, and fields an initial hardware or software increment (or block) of operational capability. to human mating strategies initially was fueled by Trivers' (1972) theory of sexual selection. Reproductive success Reproductive success is defined as the passing of genes onto the next generation in a way that they too can pass those genes on. In practice, this is often a tally of the number of offspring produced by an individual. requires an adult, male or female, to invest his or her energy in ways that will ensure their own survival to reproductive age, the production of offspring, and the survival of such offspring to reproductive age. The coming of reproductive age requires strategic solutions to numerous adaptive problems that require an individual to balance personal survival, attraction of a mate, and survival of offspring (Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Trivers, 1985). Humans use a range of approaches, or mating behaviors, to solve such problems. A mating strategy is therefore an integrated set of adaptations that organize and guide an individual's mating effort (Gangestad & Simpson, 2000). A common thread among mating strategist strat·e·gist n. One who is skilled in strategy. Noun 1. strategist - an expert in strategy (especially in warfare) strategian market strategist - someone skilled in planning marketing campaigns theorists is that mating strategies range from more to less conservative in nature. Sexual strategies theory (SST SST: see airplane. ), described by Buss and Schmitt (1993), characterizes mating strategies on a bipolar (1) See bipolar transmission. (2) One of two major categories of transistor; the other is "field effect transistor" (FET). Although the first transistors and first silicon chips were bipolar, most chips today are field effect transistors wired as CMOS logic, which dimension anchored by the concepts of short-term mating and long-term mating. Strategy use is contingent on Adj. 1. contingent on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress" contingent upon, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent the adaptive problems being faced. Generally, long-term mating strategies enhance the establishment of a longer-term pair bond with relatively high levels of commitment and support. In contrast, short-term mating strategies enhance current benefits, such as sexual accessibility or resource extraction. Gangestad and Simpson (1990) also proposed a bipolar dimension that reflects covarying sociosexual attitudes and behaviors. Individuals at one end of this dimension have a restricted sociosexual orientation and require greater levels of commitment and attachment before entering a sexual relationship. By contrast, individuals at the other end of this dimension have an unrestricted sociosexual orientation and enter sexual relationships where levels of commitment and attachment are relatively low. Gangestad and Simpson (2000) argue that, as women are required to commit significant resources to offspring to be reproductively successful, women's strategy choices are contingent upon Adj. 1. contingent upon - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress" contingent on, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent the nature and quality of their environment. Therefore, strategy choices of men are contingent upon the behaviors of women in their environment, as male reproductive success is dependent upon access to women. Belsky, Steinberg, and Draper drap·er n. Chiefly British A dealer in cloth or clothing and dry goods. [Middle English, weaver or seller of cloth, from Old French drapier, from drap, cloth; see (1991) developed the evolutionary theory
so·cial·i·za·tion n. , which proposes early childhood experiences lead to two distinct female mating strategies--a quality mating strategy or a quantity mating strategy (Belsky et al., 1991, p. 649). A quality mating strategy is associated with an early stable environment and relatively later age at puberty puberty (py  `bərtē), period during which the onset of sexual maturity occurs. and first sexual activities, development of
long-term stable pair bonds, and significant investments in parenting.
In contrast, a quantity mating strategy is associated with an unstable
early environment and relatively earlier age at puberty and first sexual
activities and development of less stable, short-term pair bonds and
more limited parental investment In evolutionary biology, parental investment (PI) is any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.) that benefits one offspring at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness (Clutton-Brock 1991: 9; Trivers 1972). . Therefore, Belsky and colleagues
(1991) view strategy choice as contingent upon early family life
(including father absence or presence).
Similarly, the aforementioned theories predict that mating strategies vary within a population and are contingent upon environmental factors. (For discussion of empirical support of these theories see Ellis et al., 1999, 2003; Gangestad & Simpson, 2000; Kim, Smith, & Palermiti, 1997; Schmitt, 2005.) The literature has identified additional individual and environmental factors that may influence strategy choice, for example, personality traits (Gangestad & Simpson, 1990), parental pubertal pubertal pertaining to or emanating from puberty. pubertal period the period approaching puberty when gonadal function, accessory sex gland function and behavior develop to the point where reproduction is possible. timing (Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997), genetic fitness (Gangestad & Simpson, 2000), and social class (Lancaster, 1991). A mating tactic is a specific act or behavior that promotes mating in some way, such as engaging in extra-pair mating, signaling sexual or romantic interest, promoting one's physical attributes, or devaluing competition. All mating strategies rely on behavioral tactics to enhance the likelihood of strategy success. Most tactics are available to both men and women, but tactics are chosen based on specific local environmental contingencies environmental contingencies (en·vīˑ·r  n·menˈ·t (Buss, 1988; Gangestad &
Simpson, 2000; Greer & Buss, 1994; Schmitt, 2005). For example,
while women and men use various tactics to promote short-term mating
relationships, Greer and Buss (1994) found women were less likely than
men to use overt sexual tactics. They viewed this difference as
reflecting societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. standards wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. women who use more overt tactics may negatively impact their reputations and thereby reduce their long-term pair-bonding opportunities. Therefore, mating tactics and mating strategies are related as tactics usage facilitates the application of any underlying strategy. Yet these concepts are theoretically distinct and may not be interchangeable in·ter·change·a·ble adj. That can be interchanged: interchangeable items of clothing; interchangeable automotive parts. in in research. Some researchers in this area routinely measure both tactics and underlying strategies when making inferences about tactic and strategy usage (recent examples include Bleske-Rechek and Buss, 2006, and Schmitt and Buss, 2001). Others do not or are less clear, however, such as Anderson and colleagues' (2005) references to sexual strategy after measuring what appeared to be mating tactics and Clarke's (2004) inferences regarding tactics and strategies. The lack of clarity in measurement in some studies may result from the fact that the relationship between these two constructs has not been specifically investigated. Based on the theories of mating strategies and mating tactics described above, two alternative propositions can be posed. The first is that mating tactics and mating strategies, while theoretically distinct, are highly correlated. For example, individuals who engage in strategies at the less conservative end of the mating dimension may engage in a greater number of mating tactics in order to advertise their availability to short-term mates and thus increase opportunity for short-term mating. In contrast, individuals engaging in more conservative mating strategies may be conservative in tactic usage thereby communicating a willingness to be highly committed to and invest in a relationship for the long haul Long distance. Long haul implies traversing a state or a country. Contrast with short haul. . Alternatively, the theories above are potentially consistent with the opposite proposition that mating tactics and mating strategies are theoretically distinct constructs that are not correlated. At any given time, the current environmental contexts may or may not be conducive to the expression of underlying mating strategies. For example, individuals who overall engage in less conservative mating strategies may not have access to appropriate short-term mates or the capability to attract such mates. If so, they may commit their resources elsewhere until the environment is more conducive to their mating style. In contrast, individuals who overall engage in more conservative strategies may engage in less tactics if a long-term mate can be easily secured. Yet, in an environment of high competition for potential long-term mates, a relatively greater number and variety of mating tactics may be needed to attract a long-term, high-quality mate. Therefore, two alternative propositions were considered: (1) Mating strategies and mating tactics have a positive association indicating that greater tactic usage is related to less conservative mating strategies; and (2) mating strategies and mating tactics usage are not associated. The nature of the association among variables reflective of mating tactics and mating strategies was explored statistically. A female sample was used as adaptive problems differ for males and females. More specifically, human females are required to make a greater level of parental investment due to the responsibility of gestation GESTATION, med. jur. The time during which a female, who has conceived, carries the embryo or foetus in her uterus. By the common consent of mankind, the term of gestation is considered to be ten lunar months, or forty weeks, equal to nine calendar months and a week. and, often, have greater responsibility for the survival of offspring after birth (Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Lancaster, 1991; Trivers, 1985). Although men and women exhibit mating behavior ranging similarly from less conservative to more conservative in nature, strategic mating decisions have differing outcomes for women as compared with men. Such differences in adaptive problems have been shown to impact mating tactic and mating strategy use and success differently for each sex (Bleske-Rechek & Buss, 2006; Buss & Schmitt, 1993; Schmitt & Buss, 1996, 2001). Method Participants Participants were 183 female undergraduate students (aged 1845, M = 21.8 years, SD = 5.5 years) at Virginia Commonwealth University Formed by a merger between the Richmond Professional Institute and the Medical College of Virginia in 1968, VCU has a medical school that is home to the nation's oldest organ transplant program. who volunteered to complete questionnaire packets in return for credit toward course requirements. Measures Escalating sexual encounters questionnaire (ESEQ), form p-tactic subset. The ESEQ includes 122 items describing acts that promote sexual encounters. The items were modified from the third-person, male version as originally published to a first-person, female version (Greer & Buss, 1994). Items are statements identifying specific acts, such as, "I invited him over for a romantic dinner," "I asked someone if he wanted to sleep with me," and "I acted with solid self-confidence" (Greer & Buss, 1994). The instructions for self-report frequency of tactic use were employed (Greer & Buss, 1994, pp. 192-193), with the insertion of phrases targeting romantic interest as well as sexual encounters in the instructions (for example, "acts someone might perform to promote a sexual encounter" was revised to read "acts someone might perform to indicate romantic interest and/or promote a sexual encounter"). The original instructions original instructions (ō·riˑ·j  ·n did not specifically include or preclude situations wherein
there was romantic interest. The current study, however desired to
specifically expand the use of tactics to include behaviors facilitating
romantic relationships as well as sexual encounters. Greer and Buss
(1994) organized the acts into 34 categories, grounded in SST,
indicating tactic type, such as "increase nonsexual contact,"
"directly request sex," and "create romantic
atmosphere." The term tactic used hereafter In the future.The term hereafter is always used to indicate a future time—to the exclusion of both the past and present—in legal documents, statutes, and other similar papers. refers to tactic types rather than individual acts. A subset of tactic types was used as participant number limits total variable number. Eight tactics were extracted after placing the 34 tactics into four areas--self-enhancement totaling 11 tactics--Hygiene (2 items, M = 11.42) and Act Nice (5 items, M= 17.50); communication of romantic interest totaling 7 tactics Nonsexual Contact (5 items, M = 14.03) and Increase Attention (3 items, M= 7.15); communication of sexual interest totaling 10 tactics--Sexual Contact (4 items, M = 10.86) and Directly Request Sex (2 items, M = 2.18); and environment enhancement totaling 7 tactics--Treat to a Romantic Dinner (3 items, M = 2.19) and Create a Romantic Atmosphere (4 items, M = 4.14). Sexual experience scale from the Derogatis sexual functioning inventory (SES). The SES is a 24-item scale measuring sexual behaviors sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1979). Respondents are asked to simply mark the presence or absence of each behavior. Andersen and Cyranowski (1995) adapted this scale in order to assess current (past 30 days) sexual behavior by using a frequency-based scale. The current study incorporated both the original form (SES-Lifetime) and the 30-day form (SES-Current) developed by Andersen and Cyranowski (1995). Sexual strategies measure (SSM). The SSM is a list of 26 sexuality adjectives that are rated on a 9-point scale ranging from extremely inaccurate to extremely accurate of the individual (Schmitt, 1996). The SSM was designed to measure the variation of sexual strategies derived from SST and corresponding to two psychological dimensions: sexual arousal sexual arousal Horny/horniness, randy/randiness Physiology A state of sexual 'yellow alert' which has a mental component–↑ cortical responsiveness to sensory stimulation, and physical component–↑ penile sensitivity, neural response to stimuli, and sexual commitment (SSM-Sexual Arousal arousal /arous·al/ (ah-rou´z'l) 1. a state of responsiveness to sensory stimulation or excitability. 2. the act or state of waking from or as if from sleep. 3. and SSM-Sexual Commitment). Schmitt found good temporal reliability over a 6-week test-retest interval (n = 64) yielding correlations of octant scores significant at the p < .001 level. Test-retest correlations over a 6-week interval for the dimensions were also significant, SSM-Sexual Arousal, r= .89, p < .001, and SSM-Sexual Commitment, r = .94, p < .001. Sociosexual orientation inventory (SOI (Silicon On Insulator) A chip architecture that increases transistor switching speed by reducing capacitance (build-up of electrical charges in the transistor's elements), and thus reducing the discharge time. The power requirement is also reduced in some designs. ). The SOI is a 7-item scale that measures sociosexual orientation and includes three overt behavioral items, one covert COVERT, BARON. A wife; so called, from her being under the cover or protection of her husband, baron or lord. behavioral item, and three attitudinal items. This scale was developed based on the literature showing substantial variability of sexual behaviors among individuals and evolutionary principles The evolutionary principle is a largely psychological doctrine formulated by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss which roughly states that when a certain species is removed from the habitat which it evolved in, or that habitat changes significantly within a brief period, the said . In a series of six studies, Simpson and Gangestad (1991) developed and validated the SOI. Test-retest reliability test-retest reliability Psychology A measure of the ability of a psychologic testing instrument to yield the same result for a single Pt at 2 different test periods, which are closely spaced so that any variation detected reflects reliability of the instrument was .94 over a 2-month period. Demographic and other self-report information questionnaire. Basic demographic information, such as age, educational level, ethnicity, and marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. , was collected. In addition, there were questions related to mating behavior, including age at menarche and number of sexual partners to date. Procedure The above measures were combined into a test packet along with a consent form that explained potential risks and benefits of the study and a demographic questionnaire. The packet was administered to 183 women in small groups of 20 or fewer participants in a room at the Department of Psychology. Trained individuals were present to distribute the materials and answer questions. In order to ensure confidentiality, no names or other identifying information were requested on any test packet materials. Results Thirty-nine participants were excluded from the original pool of 183 due to incomplete data. (For descriptive frequencies of the participants' scores, see Table 1.) Thirty-two of these individuals did not respond to all items of the Sexual Strategies Measure. The most frequently skipped terms included "chaste chaste adj. chast·er, chast·est 1. Morally pure in thought or conduct; decent and modest. 2. a. Not having experienced sexual intercourse; virginal. b. ," "perverted per·vert·ed adj. 1. Deviating from what is considered normal or correct. 2. Of, relating to, or practicing sexual perversion. ," "polygamous polygamous as a male or female, having more than one mate. ," and "celibate cel·i·bate n. 1. One who abstains from sexual intercourse, especially by reason of religious vows. 2. One who is unmarried. adj. 1. ." Of the other 7 excluded participants, 4 did not complete the SOI, 2 did not report age at menarche, and 1 did not report number of sex partners over the lifetime. There were no significant differences between included and excluded participants on age, (F (1, 180)= .77, p =ns), ethnicity, ([x.sup.2](5, n = 182) = 2.20, p = ns), enrollment status ([x.sup.2](1, n = 182) = .14, p = ns), engagement in intercourse ([x.sup.2](1, n = 183) = 1.4, p = ns), marital status ([x.sup.2](3, n = 181) = 2.73, p = ns), romantic relationship status ([x.sup.2](1, n = 183) = 1.69, p = ns) or living with their partners ([x.sup.2](1, n = 183) = .65, p = ns). Reliability coefficients (Chronbach's [alpha]) were obtained using the modified data set for all measures. Tactics were not subjected to reliability analysis as numbers of items were too low, ranging from only 2 to 6 items. SES-Current, SES-Lifetime, and 4 SSM octants had coefficients that ranged from .73 to .97, falling within acceptable to very good ranges. Such coefficients indicate the proportion of variance that underlies the test items as explained by common factors (Crocker & Algina, 1986; DeVellis, 1991). Four of the octants of the SSM had coefficients below .7. Three of these octants comprised 2 or 3 items and resulted in coefficients that are minimally acceptable (unrestricted, [alpha] = .69, and inhibited, [alpha] = .65), and unacceptable (exclusive, [alpha] = .58). Reliability coefficients are statistically limited by the number of items in any subscale and so low reliability coefficients had been anticipated. The remaining octant achieved an undesirable reliability coefficient despite containing 6 items (Erotophillic, [alpha] = .63). Based on the previous discussion regarding temporal reliability in the method section, however, the octant scores and resulting SSM-Sexual Arousal and SSM-Sexual Commitment dimension scores were used in data analyses. The SOI obtained a reliability coefficient of .56, which is considered unacceptable. Simpson and Gangestad (1991) found the SOI to be minimally acceptable at .73. Review of interitem correlations for the scale indicated that the removal of the attitudinal item "I would have to be closely attached to someone (both emotionally and psychologically) before I could feel comfortable and fully enjoy having sex with him or her" would improve the reliability coefficient to .65, which is minimally acceptable. Gangestad and Simpson (1990) argue that the construction of the SOI is intended to include items that are heterogeneous in order to assess a range of behavioral markers and attitudinal/cognitive components of sociosexuality. Based on the discussion above, the removal of item 7, and the theoretical underpinnings and prominence in the literature, the SOI was used in the current study while noting the caveat of relatively lower reliability. Factor Analysis of Variables Related to Mating Tactics and Mating Strategies Factor analyses Verb 1. factor analyse - to perform a factor analysis of correlational data factor analyze analyse, analyze - break down into components or essential features; "analyze today's financial market" were conducted. Some assumptions for conducting a factor analysis were not met. Cases with missing data were deleted appropriately, which resulted in a smaller than recommended sample size. (1) The assumption of normality normality, in chemistry: see concentration. was not met as many items are relatively infrequent in·fre·quent adj. 1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest. 2. and therefore skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data . Outliers' responses were reviewed but not deleted as measures upon which outliers appeared, the ESEQ (4 participants) and SOI (2 participants) includes restrictions on participant responses. The following variables were entered into the exploratory factor analysis: SSM-Sexual Arousal, SSM-Sexual Commitment, SOI, SES-Lifetime, SES-Current, number of sexual partners over a lifetime, ESEQ Tactic Subset--Hygiene, Act Nice, Nonsexual Contact, Increase Attention, Sexual Contact, Directly Request Sex, Treat to a Romantic Dinner, Create a Romantic Atmosphere, and age at menarche. The initial factor analysis yielded four factors with eigenvalues eigenvalues statistical term meaning latent root. over 1.0, and a visual review of the scree plot indicated three factors accounting for 63% of the variance. A review of the three-factor structure indicated that most tactics loaded highly on the first and second factors. A two-factor solution seemed appropriately parsimonious par·si·mo·ni·ous adj. Excessively sparing or frugal. par  si·mo .
Criteria for a variable deemed as loading on a factor were a correlation
of .50 or better, a .30 difference between the remaining factor
loadings, and the absence of a loading of .50 on another factor.
SSM-Sexual Arousal loaded .53 and .47 and was deleted. Menarche was also
deleted, loading minimally at .04 and .23. A final two-factor analysis
utilizing a promax rotation then was conducted on the remaining
variables explaining 61% of the variance. The two factors were only
minimally correlated at. 14, [r.sup.2] = .02. Table 2 contains loadings
of the variables on the two factors.
The interpretation of the two-factor solution of the exploratory factor analysis is consistent with the concepts of mating tactic and mating strategy being distinct. Recall that tactic was defined earlier as a specific act or behavior that promotes mating, and mating strategy was defined earlier as an integrated set of adaptations and attitudes organizing and guiding mating. Factor 1 was composed of actual sexual behaviors that individuals had performed (SES-Current) and eight mating tactics reflecting various behaviors involved in self-enhancement, communicating sexual and romantic interest, and environment enhancement. All nine variables are continuous measures of specific acts or behaviors individuals have engaged in recently and were correlated positively with the factor. Therefore, this factor reflects active engagement in behaviors signaling dating/sexual interest and being in a romantic and/or sexual relationship now. Higher scores on this factor would identify research participants who reported using a relatively greater variety and frequency of tactics in the last 30 days as compared with research participants with lower scores. Factor 1 is hereinafter here·in·af·ter adv. In a following part of this document, statement, or book. hereinafter Adverb Formal or law from this point on in this document, matter, or case Adv. 1. called Tactics Factor. Factor 2 comprised sociosexual orientation, self-perceptions of sexual commitment, variety of sexual experiences over the lifetime, and number of sexual partners over the lifetime (SOI, SSM-Sexual Commitment, SES-Lifetime, and self-report of number of sexual partners over their lifetime). All the variables, except SSM-Sexual Commitment, were positively correlated with the factor. Higher scores on this factor would identify participants who reported a relatively less conservative mating strategy as compared with research participants with lower scores. Factor 2 is hereinafter called Strategy Factor and is believed to indicate use of underlying mating strategies, that is, the decision rules used to organize the mating effort. Additional Analysis Additional analyses were pursued with a subsample sub·sam·ple n. A sample drawn from a larger sample. tr.v. sub·sam·pled, sub·sam·pling, sub·sam·ples To take a subsample from (a larger sample). of women who reported being in a relationship to establish whether factor scores could be dependent upon relationship status. For example, it may be that most women who are living with someone would be engaging in a longer-term strategy and use less mating tactics. Cohabitation A living arrangement in which an unmarried couple lives together in a long-term relationship that resembles a marriage. Couples cohabit, rather than marry, for a variety of reasons. They may want to test their compatibility before they commit to a legal union. often is viewed as indicative of a greater level of commitment consistent with longer-term strategies, although nonmarried cohabitants are relatively less committed than married cohabitants (Kurdek, 2000). In order to assess the impact of cohabitation on the two factors, an analysis of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. was conducted using age as a covariate that compared married and unmarried women in a relationship living with their partners (n = 55) with women in a relationship not living with their partners (n = 65), with the factor scores as dependent variables. Age was used as a covariate as it has been found that individuals tend to be less restrictive in strategy as they grow older. Age was a significant covariate for the Strategy Factor (F(1, 119) = 9.76, p < .01), but not for the Tactic Factor (F(1, 119) = .35, p = ns). Women living with their partners were older (M = 24.60, SD = 7.34) than women not living with their partners (M = 20.14, SD = 3.09). Consistent with other studies in this area of research wherein older women are likely to be less restrictive, the relatively older women living with their partners had higher mean scores (M = .08, SD = .84) on the Strategy Factor than the women not living with their partners (M = .02, SD = .94). Notably, however, there was no significant main effect of cohabitation on either the Tactic Factor (F(1, 119)= 2.40, p = ns) or the Strategy Factor (F(1, 119) = .59, p = ns) for women in the sample who reported being in current relationships. This result implies that the two factors are independent of cohabitation status. Discussion The findings of the current study are consistent with the proposition that the constructs of mating tactics and mating strategies are independent. The factors were essentially uncorrelated, although the statistical approach (oblique rotation of factors) allowed for correlation if indicated. The relative lack of correlation of these two constructs, however, indicates that for the women of this sample underlying mating strategy and mating tactic usage vary independently. Further, the use of cohabitation as an indicator of level of commitment was not associated with either factor in a subsample of women in relationships. A major implication of these findings is that the measurement of mating strategies and mating tactics is complex. The measurement of aspects of underlying strategic mating alone would not indicate relative effort being invested into mate attraction nor would measurement of tactic use indicate underlying mating strategy. Therefore, the measurement of both mating tactics and mating strategies is required to form a comprehensive understanding of the nature of human mating. The Strategy Factor seems to clearly reflect mating strategy rather than mating tactics as it comprises a number of variables, including the variety of sexual experiences, types of behaviors, partnership frequency data, and sexual attitudes that are more consistent with mating strategy generally. It might be proposed that the Strategy Factor reflects sexual history or experience primarily, but that would be too simplistic sim·plism n. The tendency to oversimplify an issue or a problem by ignoring complexities or complications. [French simplisme, from simple, simple, from Old French; see simple . The Strategy Factor was associated with age in the analyses of women in relationships and does include items measuring sexual history/experience, such as the presence/absence of particular sexual behaviors, the number of sexual partners in the last year, and lifetime "one-night stands one-night stand n. 1. a. A performance by a traveling musical or dramatic performer or group in one place on one night only. b. The place at which such a performance is given. 2. ." This factor also includes, however, attitudes about sex, love and fantasy, and self-reflection of how like or unlike one is to a number of commitment-related adjectives (examples include chaste, faithful, loving, and romantic). An alternative explanation can be proposed about the Tactic Factor--that this factor reflects long-term mating tactics due to instruction modifications to the ESEQ. The current study did expand the mating tactic frequency report to include indication of romantic interest as well as the promotion of sexual encounters. Plausibly, women may be seeking romantic relationships more often than sexual encounters and that the new instructions biased this factor toward romantic relationships. Yet, current actual sexual behavior also loaded highly on this factor indicating actual sexual encounters as well. In addition, the sexual cognitions of women have been found to not differentiate between romantic and sexual behavior (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1994), but rather women view a sexual woman as having a capacity for love and romance combined with a capacity for sexual passion and a lack of behavioral inhibition. Further, romantic interest does not specifically indicate long-term mating, as women may be engaged in short-term pair bonds to try out potential mates or to gain access to resources, yet may still view their short-term partner romantically as a handsome and sexy catch with high mate value. Therefore, we assert that the findings are more consistent with representing mating tactics and mating strategies rather than another explanation. The results indicate possible patterns in approaches to reproduction used by participants. Factor scores were generated and plotted (see Figure 1), suggesting that one way of thinking about the space defined by these two factors is to consider four separate patterns associated with the four quadrants (this is meant merely as a descriptive heuristic A method of problem solving using exploration and trial and error methods. Heuristic program design provides a framework for solving the problem in contrast with a fixed set of rules (algorithmic) that cannot vary. 1. and does not imply the existence of four genuine types or taxa taxa: see taxon. ). As the mating strategies individuals employ range along a continuum (restricted-unrestricted), so does tactic use (low tactic use to high tactic use). Women who are grouped in Figure 1 within the first standard deviation In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. would be expected to resemble one another in tactic use and mating strategy. In contrast, women outside the first standard deviation for each quadrant quadrant, in analytic geometry quadrant. 1 In analytic geometry, one of the four regions of the plane determined by two lines, the x-axis and the y-axis. would begin to look different from women in other quadrants beyond the first standard deviation. Such differences would reflect differences in reproductive approach at this stage in their life given their environmental contexts. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Reasons for these differing reproductive approaches are discussed here with reference to theoretical concepts introduced in the introduction (short-term and long-term mating, Buss & Schmitt, 1993; unrestricted and restricted sociosexual orientations, Gangestad & Simpson, 1990; and quantity and quality approaches, Belsky et al., 1991). Women in quadrant 1 were more conservative in strategy and engaged in more tactics in the past 30 days. The reliance on a more conservative strategy may be consistent with targeting a long-term mate to enhance reproductive success, using a restricted sociosexual orientation due to environmental contingencies, or with childhood experience leading to a quality approach. These women may be investing considerable effort in using a wider variety, greater number, or both mating tactics to attract a mate. One environmental trigger for this reproductive approach might be due to high competition among females for high-quality men who are willing to invest in a long-term relationship. Women in quadrant 2 were less conservative in strategy and engaged in more tactics. In contrast to their quadrant 1 counterparts, they have developed a less conservative mating strategy (such as short-term mating, unrestricted sociosexual orientation, or a quantity approach). Many environmental triggers An environmental trigger is a factor caused (or aided) by the environment. An example of an environmental trigger would be a component of a human's drinking water which holds the possibility of activating (triggering) a change in a person's body. may be the context for such a strategy, such as suboptimal Suboptimal A solution is called suboptimal if a part of the solution has been optimized without regards to the overall objective. familial familial /fa·mil·i·al/ (fah-mil´e-il) occurring in more members of a family than would be expected by chance. fa·mil·ial adj. environment, poor overall availability of high-quality mates, limited access to resources, or self-view as having poor mate value. These women also reported investing considerable effort in attracting a mate, however, by using a greater number and wider variety of tactics. It may be that they are in competition with quadrant 1 women for high-quality men, but are willing to accept a relationship that is shorter-term and less committed. Such a reproductive style would increase access to mates with relatively high genetic fitness and attractiveness or significant resources. Women in quadrant 3 were more conservative in strategy and engaged in fewer tactics. Strategically, they are looking for Looking for In the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. a long-term relationship with a high-quality mate similar to women in quadrant 1, but they currently are not allocating effort based on environmental contingencies. Some possible reasons for this reproductive approach are the lack of availability or lack of opportunity to access high-quality long-term mates. Further, the competition might be too high in the current environment, and effort may be allocated to enhance mate value through other means in order to attract prospective partners in the future. Women in quadrant 4 were less conservative in strategy and engaged in fewer tactics. Similar to quadrant 2 women, they are less focused on long-term mate commitment and investment, but they currently are not allocating effort to tactics usage to attract potential short-term mates. They might be investing in ensuring personal survival rather than investing in reproduction. If the environment became conducive to entering into a sexual or romantic relationship with an acceptable short-term mate, however, they may be willing to do so relatively quickly with less commitment and investment by their male partner. Although evolutionary theories have been relied upon to explain the current findings, other theoretical models could be applied, such as adult attachment theory Attachment theory is a psychological theory that provides a descriptive and explanatory framework for discussion of affectionate relationships between human beings. Most of attachment theory as we know it today is derived from the work of John Bowlby and stresses the attitudes and (Hazan & Shaver, 1994), interdependence in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" theory (Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003), scripting theory (Simon & Gagnon, 1986), and relational models See relational database. relational model - relational data model theory (Fiske, 1992; Haslam, 1994). Although a full discussion of these models is beyond the scope of this article, an example is offered. Scripting theory, as described by Simon and Gagnon (1986), would identify environmental contexts as cultural scenarios that specify appropriate targets of sexual desire, aims of sexual behavior, times and places where sexual behavior can take place, and even provide instruction for sexual behavior. Mating strategy choice and mating tactic usage then would be identified as intrapsychic intrapsychic /in·tra·psy·chic/ (-si´kik) arising, occurring, or situated within the mind. in·tra·psy·chic adj. Existing or taking place within the mind or psyche. scripts and interpersonal scripts, respectively. An intrapsychic script reflects how an individual is managing his or her sexual desires, and interpersonal scripts reflect the application of an intrapsychic script in a particular social context within a specific cultural scenario. For example, a scripting perspective would define a woman in quadrant 4 as holding an intrapsychic script that is less conservative than what is expected within the current cultural scenario and so responds by engaging in less interpersonal scripts. Limitations Measures were limited in that some measures received low reliability coefficients (i.e., octants of the SSM and of the SOI). Further, the SSM had practical problems with participants omitting responses to some adjectives. Test packet administrators reported that participants rarely asked questions regarding term definition, which may be due to the sexual nature of the study or group administration. Also, as previously described, the ESEQ was scored and used in ways developed particularly for this study. Use of differing instructions most likely changed the response style from previous studies that focused exclusively on sexual encounters. For the current study's purposes, however, the promotion of romantic relationships was considered important to measuring mating behaviors. Most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent" above all, most especially , the current study was restricted to a female sample, and findings here may be specific to women. Future research would be needed to explore the relationship of these constructs for men. Conclusion This study explored the constructs of mating tactics and mating strategies using self-report measures within a female sample. The finding of two essentially uncorrelated factors indicates that mating tactics and mating strategies are likely to vary independently for women. Variation and independence in strategy choice and tactic use is consistent with the propositions of human mating theories that the expression of mating strategies and mating tactics is likely to be contingent upon individual and environmental factors. Therefore, assessment of both mating tactics and mating strategies will enhance understanding of human mating behavior. Note (1) The factor analyses contained in this article were conducted without the outlying out·ly·ing adj. Relatively distant or remote from a center or middle: outlying regions. outlying Adjective far away from the main area Adj. 1. participants, as well as on subsamples of women aged 26 or younger and of single women, which resulted in essentially the same findings. Given the relatively small sample size and the loss of a number of participants due to incomplete measures, it seemed more prudent to include the whole sample in all analyses. References Andersen, B. L. & Cyranowski, J. M. (1995). Women's sexuality: Behavior, responses, and individual differences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (JCCP) is a bimonthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. Its focus is on treatment and prevention in all areas of clinical and clinical-health psychology and especially on topics that appeal to a broad , 63, 891-906. Anderson, B. L. & Cyranowski, J. M. (1994). Women's sexual self schema. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 67, 1979-1100. Anderson, P. B., Kontos, A. P., Tanigoshi, H., & Johnson, C. S. (2005). An examination of sexual strategies used by urban Southern and rural Midwestern university The P.A. Program is a 2-year program that starts in the summer. The D.O.,Pharm D., and Psy.D are 4-year programs. The D.O. degree is the legal and professional equivalent of the M.D. women. The Journal of Sex Research, 42, 335-342. Belsky, J., Steinberg, L., & Draper, P. (1991). Childhood experience, interpersonal development and mating strategy: An evolutionary theory of socialization. Child Development, 62, 647-670. Bleske-Rechek, A. & Buss, D. M. (2006). Sexual strategies pursued and mate attraction tactics deployed. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1299-1311. Buss, D. M. (1988). The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 616-628. Buss, D. M. & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232. Clarke, A. P. (2004). Self-perceived attractiveness and masculinization masculinization /mas·cu·lin·iza·tion/ (-lin-i-za´shun) 1. normal development of male primary or secondary sex characters in a male. 2. development of male secondary sex characters in a female or prepubescent male. predict women's sociosexuality. Evolution and Human Behavior Evolution and Human Behavior is an interdisciplinary journal, presenting research reports and theory in which evolutionary perspectives are brought to bear on the study of human behavior. , 25, 113-124. Crocker, L. & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. DeVellis, R. F. (1991). Scale development: Theory and applications. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. . Derogatis, L. R. & Melisaratos, N. (1979). The DFSI DFSI Diversified Fleet Services Inc. : A multidimensional mul·ti·di·men·sion·al adj. Of, relating to, or having several dimensions. mul ti·di·men measure of sexual functioning. Journal of Sex and
Marital Therapy, 5, 244-281.
Ellis, B. J., Bates Bates , Katherine Lee 1859-1929. American educator and writer best known for her poem "America the Beautiful," written in 1893 and revised in 1904 and 1911. , J. E., Dodge, K. A., Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J., Pettit, G. S., & Woodward, L. (2003). Does father absence place daughters at special risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy teenage pregnancy Adolescent pregnancy, teen pregnancy Social medicine Pregnancy by a ♀, age 13 to 19; TP is usually understood to occur in a ♀ who has not completed her core education–secondary school, has few or no marketable skills, is ? Child Development, 74, 801-821. Ellis, B. J., McFadyen-Ketchum, S., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Quality of early family relationships and individual differences in the timing of pubertal maturation maturation /mat·u·ra·tion/ (mach-u-ra´shun) 1. the process of becoming mature. 2. attainment of emotional and intellectual maturity. 3. in girls: A longitudinal test of an evolutionary model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 387-401. Fiske, A. P. (1992). The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory Unified Theory may refer to:
Gangestad, S. W. & Simpson, J. A. (1990). Toward an evolutionary history of female sociosexual variation. Journal of Personality, 58, 69-96. Gangestad, S. W. & Simpson, J. A. (2000). The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism pluralism, in philosophy, theory that considers the universe explicable in terms of many principles or composed of many ultimate substances. It describes no particular system and may be embodied in such opposed philosophical concepts as materialism and idealism. . Behavioral and Brain Sciences Behavioral and Brain Sciences (BBS), founded in 1978 and published by Cambridge University Press, is a journal of Open Peer Commentary modeled on the journal Current Anthropology , 23, 573-644. Graber, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Is psychopathology psychopathology /psy·cho·pa·thol·o·gy/ (-pah-thol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with the causes and processes of mental disorders. 2. abnormal, maladaptive behavior or mental activity. associated with the timing of pubertal development? Journal of the American Academy The American Academy in Berlin is a non-partisan academic institution in Berlin. It was founded in September 1994 by a group of prominent Americans and Germans, among them Richard Holbrooke, Henry Kissinger, Richard von Weizsäcker, Fritz Stern and Otto Graf Lambsdorff and opened in of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry A branch of psychiatry that specialises in work with children, teenagers, and their families. History An important antecedent to the specialty of child psychiatry was the social recognition of childhood as a special phase of life with its own developmental stages, starting with , 36, 1768-1776. Greer, A. E. & Buss, D. M. (1994). Tactics for promoting sexual encounters. The Journal of Sex Research, 31, 185-201. Haslam, N. (1994). Mental representations of social relationships: Dimensions, laws, or categories? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 575-584. Hazan, C. & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5(1), 1-22. Kim, K., Smith, P. K., & Palermiti, A. (1997). Conflict in childhood and mating development. Evolution and Human Behavior, 18, 110-142. Kurdek, L. A. (2000). Attractions and constraints as determinations of relationship commitment: Longitudinal evidence from gay, lesbian, and heterosexual heterosexual /het·ero·sex·u·al/ (-sek´shoo-al) 1. pertaining to, characteristic of, or directed toward the opposite sex. 2. one who is sexually attracted to persons of the opposite sex. couples. Personal Relationships, 7, 245-262. Lancaster, J. B. (1991). A feminist and evolutionary biologist looks at women. Yearbook of Psychical psy·chic n. 1. A person apparently responsive to psychic forces. 2. See medium. adj. also psy·chi·cal 1. Anthropology, 34, 1-11. Rusbult, C. E. & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2003). Interdependence, interaction, and relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 351-375. Schmitt, D. P. (1996). The sexual strategies measure: An assessment manual. Unpublished manuscript, Bradley University Bradley University is a private, co-educational university located in Peoria, Illinois (Coordinates: ). It is a medium sized institution with an enrollment of approximately 6,100 undergraduate and postgraduate students. . Schmitt, D. P. (2005). Sociosexuality from Argentina to Zimbabwe: A 48-nation study of sex, culture, and strategies of human mating. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 247-311. Schmitt, D. P. & Buss, D. M. (1996). Strategic self-promotion and competitor derogation The partial repeal of a law, usually by a subsequent act that in some way diminishes its Original Intent or scope. Derogation is distinguishable from abrogation, which is the total Annulment of a law. DEROGATION, civil law. : Sex and context effects on the perceived effectiveness of mate attraction tactics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1185-1204. Schmitt, D. P. & Buss, D. M. (2001). Human mate poaching poaching: see cooking. : Tactics and temptations for infiltrating infiltrating adjective Referring to a tumor that penetrates the normal, surrounding tissue existing mateships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 894-917. Simon, W. & Gagnon, J. H. (1986). Sexual scripts: Permanence Permanence law of the Medes and Persians Darius’s execution ordinance; an immutable law. [O.T.: Daniel 6:8–9] leopard’s spots there always, as evilness with evil men. [O.T.: Jeremiah 13:23; Br. Lit. and change. Archives of Sexual Behaviour, 15, 97-120. Simpson, J. A. & Gangestad, S. W. (1991). Individual differences in sociosexuality: Evidence of convergent and discriminant validity Discriminant validity describes the degree to which the operationalization is not similar to (diverges from) other operationalizations that it theoretically should not be similar to. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 870-883. Trivers, R. (1972). Social evolution. Menlo Park Menlo Park. 1 Residential city (1990 pop. 28,040), San Mateo co., W Calif.; inc. 1874. Electronic equipment and aerospace products are manufactured in the city. Menlo College and a Stanford Univ. research institute are there. 2 Uninc. , CA: Benjamin/ Cummings. Trivers, R. (1985). Parental investment and sexual selection. In B. Campbell (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man (pp. 136-179). Chicago: Aldine-Atherton. J. Sabura Allen Monash University Facilities in are diverse and vary in services offered. Information on residential sevices at Monash University, including on-campus (MRS managed) and off-campus, can be found at [2] Student organisations Kent G. Bailey Virginia Commonwealth University Correspondence should be addressed to J. Sabura Allen, School of Psychology, Psychiatry psychiatry (səkī`ətrē, sī–), branch of medicine that concerns the diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, including major depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety. and Psychological Medicine, Monash University, Victoria, 3800 Australia. E-mail: sabura.allen@med.monash.edu.au
Table 1. Descriptive Information of Research Participants
(N = 183)
Participant
Variable Category number Percentage
Ethnicity (N = 182) Caucasian 103 56.6
African American 47 25.8
Asian American 12 6.6
Hispanic 6 3.3
Native American 3 1.6
Other 11 6.1
Intercourse (N= 183) Have engaged 155 84.7
Have not engaged 28 15.3
Marital Status Single 163 90.1
(N = 181) Married 12 6.6
Divorced 4 2.2
Widowed 2 1.1
Relationship In a relationship 124 67.8
Status (N = 183) Not in a 59 32.2
relationship
Living with Yes 58 31.7
partner (N = 183) No 125 68.3
Table 2. Factor Loadings of Dating and Sexual Measures
Variable Factor I Factor 2
ESEQ-Sexual Contact .91 .15
ESEQ-Nonsexual Contact .90 .02
ESEQ-Increase Attention .83 .05
SES-Current .82 .21
ESEQ-Create a Romantic Atmosphere .82 .16
ESEQ-Act Nice .78 -.04
ESEQ-Directly Request Sex .73 .28
ESEQ-Treat to a Romantic Dinner .65 .15
ESEQ-Hygiene .58 -.02
Sociosexual Orientation Inventory -.01 .79
Number of Sexual Partners--Lifetime .10 .79
SSM-Commitment Dimension .01 -.68
SES-Lifetime .38 .69
Note. ESEQ = Escalating Sexual Encounters Questionnaire;
SES = Sexual Experience Scale; and
SSM = Sexual Strategies Measure.
|
|
||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion