Annoyance from Transportation Noise: Relationships with Exposure Metrics DNL and DENL and Their Confidence Intervals.We present a model of the distribution of noise annoyance with the mean varying as a function of the noise exposure. Day-night level (DNL DNL Day-Night Average Sound Level DNL Differential Non-Linearity DNL Daily News Live DNL Department of National Lotteries (Ghana) DNL Delete to New Line ) and day-evening-night level (DENL) were used as noise descriptors. Because the entire annoyance distribution has been modeled, any annoyance measure that summarizes this distribution can be calculated from the model. We fitted the model to data from noise annoyance studies for aircraft, road traffic, and railways separately. Polynomial polynomial, mathematical expression which is a finite sum, each term being a constant times a product of one or more variables raised to powers. With only one variable the general form of a polynomial is a0xn+a approximations of relationships implied by the model for the combinations of the following exposure and annoyance measures are presented: DNL or DENL, and percentage "highly annoyed" (cutoff at 72 on a scale of 0-100), percentage "annoyed" (cutoff at 50 on a scale of 0-100), or percentage (at least) "a little annoyed" (cutoff at 28 on a scale of 0-100). These approximations are very good, and they are easier to use for practical calculations than the model itself, because the model involves a normal distribution. Our results are based on the same data set that was used earlier to establish relationships between DNL and percentage highly annoyed. In this paper we provide better estimates of the confidence intervals confidence interval, n a statistical device used to determine the range within which an acceptable datum would fall. Confidence intervals are usually expressed in percentages, typically 95% or 99%. due to the improved model of the relationship between annoyance and noise exposure. Moreover, relationships using descriptors other than DNL and percentage highly annoyed, which are presented here, have not been established earlier on the basis of a large dataset See data set. . Key words: day-evening-night level, day-night level, DENL, DNL, noise annoyance, noise pollution, transportation noise. Environ en·vi·ron tr.v. en·vi·roned, en·vi·ron·ing, en·vi·rons To encircle; surround. See Synonyms at surround. [Middle English envirounen, from Old French environner Health Perspect 109:409-416 (2001). [Online 29 March 2001] http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2001/109p409-416miedema/abstract.html Lambert Lambert may refer to
European Community (EU) approximately 77 million people (i.e., 22% of the total population of the EU in 1994) are exposed to a transportation noise level ([L.sub.Aeq]) exceeding 65 dB during the day, which many countries consider to be unacceptable. In 1994, almost 170 million Europeans (49%) lived in "gray zones," areas that do not ensure acoustic acoustic /acous·tic/ (ah-kldbomacs´tik) relating to sound or hearing. a·cous·tic or a·cous·ti·cal adj. Of or relating to sound, the sense of hearing, or the perception of sound. comfort to residents (1). Depending on the country, road traffic noise annoyed between 20% and 25% of the population (1). Even though the uncertainty of these estimates is very large, there is no doubt about the high prevalence of noise annoyance in the EU. A recent survey in Muscat Muscat, Maskat, or Masqat (all: mŭs`kăt, mŭs`kət), city (1993 pop. 533,774), capital of Oman, SE Arabia, on the Gulf of Oman. It is flanked by rugged mountains. City, Oman Oman (ōmän`), officially Sultanate of Oman, independent sultanate (2005 est. pop. 3,002,000), c.82,000 sq mi (212,380 sq km), SE Arabian peninsula, on the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea. It was formerly known as Muscat and Oman. , illustrates that noise and noise annoyance are not confined con·fine v. con·fined, con·fin·ing, con·fines v.tr. 1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand. See Synonyms at limit. to the industrialized in·dus·tri·al·ize v. in·dus·tri·al·ized, in·dus·tri·al·iz·ing, in·dus·tri·al·iz·es v.tr. 1. To develop industry in (a country or society, for example). 2. societies, but are quickly increasing in cities in the developing countries (2). The length of the paved pave tr.v. paved, pav·ing, paves 1. To cover with a pavement. 2. To cover uniformly, as if with pavement. 3. To be or compose the pavement of. roads in Muscat City increased from [is greater than or equal to] 50 km in 1975 to 156 km in the old part of the city and 1,213 km in the entire city in 1995. This explains the finding that in 1995 lack of quietness caused the highest dissatisfaction in a sample of 452 inhabitants
The game is based loosely on the concepts from SameGame. . It was higher than the dissatisfaction with the 12 other aspects of the environment that were rated, such as public facilities and safety. These figures illustrate that noise annoyance is widespread in the industrialized countries, as well as in urban areas in the developing countries. The growing transportation network with increasing traffic densities is a primary cause of the high prevalence of noise annoyance. For making policy to control environmental noise, it is important to have a set of relationships that show how annoyance levels are associated with given noise exposure levels. Many studies have been conducted to establish such relationships. However, doubt regarding the predictability of noise annoyance has impeded im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped the acceptance of the exposure-response relationships that have been proposed. One cause of this doubt is that the studies show a large variation in individual annoyance reactions to the same noise exposure level. The other cause of doubt regarding the predictability of noise annoyance is that attempts to integrate the results from different studies (3-5) show that there is a large variation in the relationships found in different studies. The large individual variation and the large study variation suggest that it is impossible to predict annoyance with sufficient accuracy. Indeed, the annoyance response of a particular individual or a group of individuals can be predicted on the basis of the exposure only with a large amount of uncertainty. This uncertainty can be described by the prediction interval  This article or section may be confusing or unclear for some readers.Please [improve the article] or discuss this issue on the talk page. for individuals or groups around the exposure-response curves. However, in most cases the uncertainty regarding individual or group reactions is not what matters for noise policy. Most policy is made with a view to the overall reaction to exposures in a population. This means that it is not the uncertainty with respect to the prediction of an individual or group reaction that is important, but it is the uncertainty regarding the exact relationship between exposure and response in the population. The accuracy of the estimation estimation In mathematics, use of a function or formula to derive a solution or make a prediction. Unlike approximation, it has precise connotations. In statistics, for example, it connotes the careful selection and testing of a function called an estimator. of this relationship is described by the confidence interval around the curve. If properly established, the confidence interval takes into account the variation between individuals as well as the variation between studies. The distinction between the types of uncertainty (regarding an individual or group reaction or regarding the location of the curve) and their relevance to policy making is as important as it is subtle. In this paper we present a type of exposure-response curve that was established earlier (3-5) as well as curves with other descriptors of the exposure and the annoyance, together with the confidence intervals of these curves. Miedema and Vos (5) presented synthesis curves for aircraft, road traffic, and railway noise. An attempt was made to find the 95% confidence intervals around the exposure-response curves, taking into account the variation between individuals and studies. These curves were based on all studies examined by Schultz Schultz may refer to People:
Here we improve upon the method used to establish the confidence intervals. We analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. the same data, but the model of the relationship between exposure and annoyance is more sophisticated and better suited for the data. Using the more appropriate model gives the relationships and their confidence intervals a firmer basis. The resulting relationships and their 95% confidence intervals do not differ much from the ones published previously (5). The confidence intervals indicate that, even though there is considerable variation between individuals and between studies, the uncertainty regarding the location of the relationships between noise exposure and annoyance is rather limited. In the approach taken in this paper, the entire distribution of annoyance reactions is modeled as a function of the noise exposure. Consequently, any annoyance measure that summarizes this distribution (i.e., %HA or another measure) can be calculated as a function of the exposure level. In addition to the relationships between DNL and annoyance, relationships that use another noise metric, day-evening-night level (DENL) of noise, are presented. DENL has been proposed as the noise exposure metric for the European Union (7). This is the first analysis of relationships using descriptors other than DNL and %HA, based on a large data set. Noise Metrics metrics Managed care A popular term for standards by which the quality of a product, service, or outcome of a particular form of Pt management is evaluated. See TQM. and Annoyance Measures Previous synthesis studies used DNL as the descriptor (1) A word or phrase that identifies a document in an indexed information retrieval system. (2) A category name used to identify data. (operating system) descriptor of noise exposure. This noise descriptor is defined in terms of the [L.sub.Aeq] (average levels) during daytime Daytime may refer to:
and nighttime, and applies a 10-dB penalty to noise in the night: DNL = 10 log [(15/24) x [10.sup.LD/10] + (9/24) x [10.sup.(LN+10)/10]] Here LD and LN are the long-term Long-term Three or more years. In the context of accounting, more than 1 year. long-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss in the value of a security that has been held over a specific length of time. Compare short-term. [L.sub.Aeq] as defined by the International Standards Organization See ISO. (8) for the day 0700-2200 hr and the night 2200-0700 hr, respectively. DNL is used in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . A noise metric related to DNL is DENL. It is defined in terms of the average levels during daytime, evening, and nighttime, and applies a 5-dB penalty to noise in the evening and a 10-dB penalty to noise in the night: DENL = 10 log [(12/24) x [10.sup.LD/10] + (4/24) x [10.sup.(LE+5)/10] + (8/24) x [10.sup.(LN+10)/10]] Here LD, LE, and LN are the A-weighted long-term [L.sub.Aeq] (8) for the day (0700-1900 hr), evening (1900-2300 hr), and night (2300-0700 hr) determined over the year at the most exposed facade facade (fəsäd`), exterior face or wall of a building. The term implies ordered placement of its openings and other features and thus seems inapplicable to a wall without design. . DENL has been proposed as the new uniform noise metric for the European Union (7). The use of DNL or DENL is supported by a recent study that investigated which noise metrics best predict annoyance from aircraft noise (9). The authors concluded that the outcome of their analyses of available data sets supports the use of metrics based on [L.sub.Aeq] and the application of a 10-dB penalty to nighttime noise. The available data were not a suitable basis for a conclusion regarding a penalty for noise in the evening. Results are presented here for both DNL (used in previous synthesis studies and being used in the United States) and DENL (new metric for the European Union) because both measures are relevant. Annoyance questions in different studies do not use the same number of response categories. Some questions have only 3 response categories, whereas others use as many as 11 categories. The translation of such scales into comparable annoyance measures for different studies is not trivial TRIVIAL. Of small importance. It is a rule in equity that a demurrer will lie to a bill on the ground of the triviality of the matter in dispute, as being below the dignity of the court. 4 Bouv. Inst. n. 4237. See Hopk. R. 112; 4 John. Ch. 183; 4 Paige, 364. . Here all sets of response categories were translated into a scale from 0 to 100. The translation is based on the assumption that a set of annoyance categories divides the range from 0 to 100 in equally spaced intervals. The general rule used to determine the position of a category boundary on a scale from 0 to 100 is [score.sub.boundary i] = [100.sub.i/m] (Table 1). Here i is the rank number of the category boundary, starting with 0 for the lower boundary of the lowest annoyance category, and m is the number of categories. Table 1. Boundary quantifications for different annoyance scales. No. of effective Boundary categories quantifications 3 0-33-67-100 4 0-25-50-75-100 5 0-20-40-60-80-100 6 0-17-33-50-67-83-100 7 0-14-28-43-57-72-86-100 10 0-10-20-_-80-90-100 11 0-9-18-_-82-91-100 The distribution of the annoyance scores at a given noise exposure level can be summarized in various ways. Often a cutoff point Cutoff point The lowest rate of return acceptable on investments. is chosen on the scale, and the percentage of the responses exceeding the cutoff is reported (3-5). If the cutoff is 72 on a 0-100 scale, then the result is called the percentage of highly annoyed persons (%HA); with a cutoff at 50 it is the percentage "annoyed" (%A), and with a cutoff at 28 it is the percentage "(at least) a little annoyed" (%LA). An alternative to these types of measures is the average annoyance score. Data In the last 7 years, TNO TNO Tamarindo, Costa Rica (Airport code) TNO Nederlandse Organisatie voor Toegepast Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek TNO Trans-Neptunian Object TNO The New Order (paramilitary street gang) TNO Trust No One in Leiden Leiden or Leyden (both: lī`dən), city (1994 pop. 114,892), South Holland prov., W Netherlands, on the Old Rhine (Oude Rijn) River. Manufactures include medical equipment, machinery, graphic arts, and food products. , The Netherlands Netherlands (nĕth`ərləndz), Du. Nederland or Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, officially Kingdom of the Netherlands, constitutional monarchy (2005 est. pop. 16,407,000), 15,963 sq mi (41,344 sq km), NW Europe. , has compiled an archive of original data sets from studies on annoyance caused by environmental noise. These studies concerned different modes of transportation (aircraft, road traffic, and railway) and were carried out in Europe Europe (y  r`əp), 6th largest continent, c.4,000,000 sq mi (10,360,000 sq km) including adjacent islands (1992 est. pop. 512,000,000). , North America North America, third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. , and Australia Australia (ôstrāl`yə), smallest continent, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. With the island state of Tasmania to the south, the continent makes up the Commonwealth of Australia, a federal parliamentary state (2005 est. pop. . As far as possible, a
common set of variables is derived for all studies which includes, among
others, noise exposure measures and annoyance measures. Table 2 gives an
overview of the studies for which it was possible to derive DNL and %HA
in such a way that they satisfy established criteria (5). Extreme
exposure levels (DNL [is less than] 45 or [is greater than] 75 dB) were
excluded from the analyses because there is no practical need for
information concerning the annoyance at these extreme levels, and the
risk of unreliable data is high at these extremes. (The risk of
unreliable noise data is high at very low levels, whereas the risk of
selection of "survivors Survivors was a British television series devised by Terry Nation and produced by Terence Dudley at the BBC from 1975 to 1977. It concerned the plight of a group of people who had survived an accidentally released plague that had killed nearly the entire population of the " is high at very high levels). The
derivation derivation, in grammar: see inflection. of DNL and %HA has been discussed elsewhere (5). Here that
report is supplemented with a discussion of the derivation of the
additional measures that are used in this paper.
Table 2. Data sets used to establish the relationships between noise
exposure and annoyance.
Fields' Determination
code (6) Name of survey (year) of DENL
Aircraft
AUL-210 Australian Five Airport Survey (1980)
Richmond & Perth (*)
Sydney & Adelaide DNL + 1.2
Melbourne DNL + 0.3
CAN-168 Canadian National Community Noise
Survey (1979) (*)
FRA-016 French Four-Airport Noise Study (1965) (*)
FRA-239 French Combined Aircraft/Road Traffic
Survey (1984)
NET-240 Schiphol Combined Aircraft/Road
Traffic Survey (1984)
NOR-311 Oslo Airport Survey (1989) (*)
NOR-328 Bodo Military Aircraft Exercise Study
(1991-1992) (*)
NOR-366 Vaernes Military Aircraft Exercise
Study (1990-1991) (*)
SWE-035 Scandinavian Nine-Airport Noise Study
(1969, 1970,1971, 1972,1974, 1976) (*)
SWI-053 Swiss Three-City Noise Survey (1971) (*)
UKD-024 Heathrow Aircraft Noise Survey (1967)
UKD-242 Heathrow Combined Aircraft/Road Traffic
Survey (1982)
UKD-238 Glasgow Combined Aircraft/Road Traffic
Survey (1984)
USA-022 U.S. Four-Airport Survey (phase I of
Tracor Survey) (1967)
USA-032 U.S. Three-Airport Survey (phase II of
Tracor Survey) (1969)
USA-044 U.S. Small City Airports (Small City
Tracor Survey) (1970)
USA-082 LAX Airport Noise Study (1973) (*)
USA-203 Burbank Aircraft Noise Change Study
(1979) (*)
USA-204 John Wayne Airport Operation Study
(1981) (*)
USA-338 U.S.A. 7-Air Force Base Study (1981) (*)
Road traffic
BEL-122 Antwerp Traffic Noise Survey (1975) (*)
BEL-137 Brussels Traffic Noise Survey (1976) (*)
CAN-120 Western Ontario University Traffic
Noise Survey (1975)
CAN-121 Southern Ontario Community Survey
(1975/1976) (*)
CAN-168 Canadian National Community Noise
Survey (1979)
FRA-092 French Ten-City Traffic
NET-276 Netherlands Tram and Road Traffic Noise
Survey (1993)
NET-361 Netherlands Environmental Pollution
Annoyance Survey (1983) (*)
NET-362 Arnhem Road Traffic Study (1984) (*)
SWE-142 Stockholm, Visby, Gothenburg Traffic
Noise Study (1976) (*)
SWE-165 Gothenburg Tramway Noise Survey (1976)
SWI-053 Swiss Three-City Noise Survey (1971)
SWI-173 Zurich Time-of-Day Survey (1978)
UKD-071 B.R.S. London Traffic Noise Survey
(1972)
UKD-072 English Road Traffic Survey (1972)
UKD-157 London Area Panel Survey (1977/1978)
UKD-242 Heathrow Combined Aircraft/Road Traffic
Survey (1982)
UKD-238 Glasgow Combined Aircraft/Road Traffic
Survey (1984)
Railway
FRA-063 Paris Area Railway Noise Survey (1972) (*)
GER-192 German Road/Railway Noise Comparison
Study (1978/1981)
NET-153 Netherlands Railway Noise Survey (1977)
NET-276 Netherlands Tram and Road Traffic Noise
Survey (1983)
NET-361 Netherlands Environmental Pollution
Annoyance Survey (1993) NA
SWE-165 Gothenburg Tramway Noise Survey (1976) (*)
SWE-228 Swedish Railway Study (1978-1980) (*)
SWE-365 Swedish 15-site Railway Study
(1992-1993)
UKD-116 British National Railway Noise Survey
(1975/1976)
Data sets as in Miedema and Vos (5), except for NET-361, which was not
used here (NA) because the number of cases was too small for the
analyses in this paper; some minor corrections have been applied (15).
For each data set, it is indicated how DENL is established. If this was
done directly from the basic [L.sub.Aeq] data, there is a blank in the
determination column.
(*) Indicates that the rules from the Appendix have been used. For three
airports in AUL-210, the specific rules used are given (see text).
We also use DENL as a descriptor of the noise exposure, as a possible alternative for DNL. For most studies in Table 2 the [L.sub.Aeq]s that are needed for calculating DENL could be derived in the same way as the [L.sub.Aeq]s that are needed for calculating DNL (5). However, DNL was given or estimated directly for various studies, indicated in Table 2, and no information regarding the time pattern of the [L.sub.Aeq] was available for these studies. For these studies DENL is estimated from DNL on the basis of the general rules that are derived in the Appendix. An exception to these rules was made for three airports in the Australian Australian pertaining to or originating in Australia. Australian bat lyssavirus disease see Australian bat lyssavirus disease. Australian cattle dog a medium-sized, compact working dog used for control of cattle. Five Airport Survey (AUL-210) because some information was available, in particular regarding the existence of a nighttime curfew curfew [O.Fr.,=cover fire], originally a signal, such as the ringing of a bell, to damp the fire, extinguish all lights in the dwelling, and retire for the night. The custom originated as a precaution against fires and was common throughout Europe in the Middle Ages. . For Sydney Sydney, city, Australia Sydney, city (1991 pop. 3,097,956), capital of New South Wales, SE Australia, surrounding Port Jackson inlet on the Pacific Ocean. Sydney is Australia's largest city, chief port, and main cultural and industrial center. and Adelaide Adelaide, empress consort of Holy Roman Emperor Otto I Adelaide (ăd`əlād) or Adelheid (ä`dĕlhīt), c. , such a curfew existed so that the hourly [L.sub.Aeq] was expected to drop sharply after 2200 hr. Consequently, the difference, DENL - DNL, was expected to be larger than for most other airports (~ 0.6 dB) but still smaller than the value obtained when the level drops to zero between 2200 and 2300 hr (1.56 dB; Appendix). Thus, a better rule for these airports is DENL = DNL + 1.2. For Melbourne Melbourne, city, Australia Melbourne, city (1991 pop. 2,761,995), capital of Victoria, SE Australia, on Port Phillip Bay at the mouth of the Yarra River. Melbourne, Australia's second largest city, is a rail and air hub and financial and commercial center. the time pattern resembled that of road traffic more than the usual time pattern of aircraft noise, so that the difference, DENL - DNL, was expected to be smaller than for most other airports (~ 0.6 dB), but still larger than for road traffic (~ 0.2 dB; Appendix). Thus, a better rule in this case is DENL = DNL + 0.3. Here we model the distribution of annoyance responses as a function of the noise exposure. The input needed for estimating the parameters of the annoyance distribution is either the individual annoyance responses combined with the individual exposure levels, or the distribution of the annoyance responses per noise exposure class. This information was available (5) for most studies in Table 2. For some studies, the distribution of the response over the original annoyance categories was not known, but only %HA (and the percentage not highly annoyed). Because the more detailed distribution was not available for these studies, the distributions of responses over the two categories (not highly annoyed, highly annoyed) were used as input. We applied a specific procedure to the distribution of annoyance responses if the annoyance question was preceded by a "filter" question (e.g., Do you hear the noise from road traffic? never, sometimes, often, always) on the basis of which the annoyance question was skipped for some respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. (e.g., those who answered "never"). The respondents who skipped the annoyance question can be assumed to have low annoyance. The present analyses are more sensitive to the form of the entire distribution than the previous procedure (5), where only the relationship of %HA with the noise exposure was modeled. For establishing that relationship, it was sufficient to assume that respondents who skipped the annoyance question were not highly annoyed (this could technically be done by assigning as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. them to the lowest annoyance category). Here, because of the uncertainty regarding their exact annoyance level, the two lowest annoyance categories were combined if a filter was used, and the respondents who skipped the annoyance question were assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. to this category. This minimized the risk that annoyance was underestimated due to the use of a filter question. Exposure-Response Model Basic model. The noise annoyance of an individual on a scale from 0 to 100 is denoted by A*. Instead of observing A* precisely, we only know the interval in which A* comes on the scale for an individual. The locations of the boundaries of the intervals depend on the set of annoyance response categories used in a study. On the basis of Miedema (10), where a linear relationship between DNL and A* was found, A* is assumed to be the sum of two components--namely, a component that is a linear function of DNL (or DENL) and a random component. Thus: [1] A* = [[Beta].sub.0] + [[Beta].sub.1]DNL + [Epsilon 1. (language) EPSILON - A macro language with high level features including strings and lists, developed by A.P. Ershov at Novosibirsk in 1967. EPSILON was used to implement ALGOL 68 on the M-220. ]* Here [[Beta].sub.0] is the intercept intercept in mathematical terms the points at which a curve cuts the two axes of a graph. , [[Beta].sub.1] is the slope coefficient coefficient /co·ef·fi·cient/ (ko?ah-fish´int) 1. an expression of the change or effect produced by variation in certain factors, or of the ratio between two different quantities. 2. of DNL, and [Epsilon]* is the random component. The random component, [Epsilon]*, and hence A*, is assumed to have a censored cen·sor n. 1. A person authorized to examine books, films, or other material and to remove or suppress what is considered morally, politically, or otherwise objectionable. 2. normal distribution. {A random variable X with bounded support [[[Tau].sub.L],[[Tau].sub.R]] has a censored normal distribution with parameters [Mu], [Sigma SIGMA - A scientific visual programming environment from NASA. http://fi-www.arc.nasa.gov/fia/projects/sigma/. ], [[Tau].sub.L], and [[Tau].sub.R] [the left and right censoring censoring in epidemiology, a loss of information from a study, whether by subjects dropping out of the study or because of infrequent measurement. points] if its density equals [Phi][(x - [Mu])/[Sigma]] for x [element of] ][[Tau].sub.L] [[Tau].sub.R][ and if at the censoring points P(X = [[Tau].sub.L]) = [Phi][([[Tau].sub.L] - [Mu])/[Sigma]] and P(X = [[Tau].sub.R]) = 1 - [Phi][([[Tau].sub.R] [Mu])/[Sigma]]. [Phi](x) represents the cumulative standard normal distribution and [Phi](x) the standard normal density.} This means that there is a normally distributed variable A such that A* equals A if A [element of] [0,100], A* = 0 if A [is less than] 0, and A* = 100 if A [is greater than] 100. The reason for assuming a censored normal distribution is as elaborated below. A* has values in the interval [0,100] so that its distribution has bounded support. The dispersion dispersion, in chemistry dispersion, in chemistry, mixture in which fine particles of one substance are scattered throughout another substance. A dispersion is classed as a suspension, colloid, or solution. of A* varies with the noise exposure: for low DNL levels (just above 45 dB) and high levels of DNL (just below 75 dB), the annoyance varies less among people than at intermediate values of DNL. A distribution that has both characteristics (bounded support on [0,100] and a variation related to DNL as described) is a censored normal distribution with the mean increasing as a function of DNL. Therefore the distribution of [Epsilon]*, and hence A*, is assumed to be censored normal. Instead of considering A*, it is more convenient to model the corresponding, normally distributed variable A. Then the model is [2] A = [[Beta].sub.0] + [[Beta].sub.1]DNL + [Epsilon], where [Epsilon] is normally distributed with zero mean and constant variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality [[Sigma].sup.2], that is, [Epsilon] ~ N(0, [[Sigma].sup.2]). The parameters of Equation 2 can be estimated with grouped regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. (11) if only the interval in which A comes is observed. A common type of measure of annoyance is the percentage of people whose annoyance exceeds a certain annoyance level C. This is the main descriptor of the annoyance distribution of interest. The probability, [p.sub.C](DNL), that someone with exposure DNL has an annoyance level that exceeds C is [3] [p.sub.C](DNL) = Prob (A [is greater than or equal to] C) = Prob ([[Beta].sub.0] + [[Beta].sub.1]DNL + [Epsilon] [is greater than or equal to] C) = Prob ([Epsilon] [is greater than or equal to] C - [[Beta].sub.0] - [[Beta].sub.1]DNL) = 1 - [Phi][(C - [[Beta].sub.0] - [[Beta].sub.1]DNL)/[Sigma]], where [Phi] represents the cumulative standard normal distribution. [The standard normal distribution [Phi](x) equals [(2[Pi]).sup.-1/2] [integral of] exp exp abbr. 1. exponent 2. exponential (-0.5 x [t.sup.2]) dt, with integration over the interval minus infinity minus infinity - The most negative value, not necessarily or even usually the simple negation of plus infinity. In N bit twos-complement arithmetic, infinity is 2^(N-1) - 1 but minus infinity is -(2^(N-1)), not -(2^(N-1) - 1). to x.] The annoyance distribution can be fully described by varying C and calculating [p.sub.C](DNL) for each C. Given estimates [b.sub.0], [b.sub.1] of the intercept [[Beta].sub.0] and the slope [[Beta].sub.1], and estimate s of the standard error [Sigma], respectively, then [p.sub.C](DNL) = 1 - [Phi] (C - [b.sub.0] - [b.sub.1]DNL/s) is an estimate of [p.sub.C](DNL). Then 100 x [p.sub.C](DNL) is an estimate of the percentage of persons with noise exposure DNL whose annoyance exceeds C. In the "Results" section, results will be presented for three different values for C: 28 (little annoyed), 50 (annoyed), and 72 (highly annoyed). In addition, the estimates of the parameters will be presented so that the percentage of persons with a certain DNL whose annoyance exceeds C can be calculated for any C. Extended model. In standard regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. models it is assumed that individuals have been drawn at random from a population and that the random components, [Epsilon], for the individuals are independent. However, the individuals in the present multistudy data set are not drawn at random, but can be thought of as having been drawn in clusters defined by the studies. If there is a study effect and the study level in the sample is ignored, then estimates of standard errors are biased (too low). Underestimated standard errors result in too-narrow confidence intervals. The underestimation depends on the size of the study effect. Because there is a large study effect in noise annoyance investigations, it is important to take this aspect of the data set into account. An accepted method of incorporating study effects is formulating a multilevel model Multilevel models are known by several names: hierarchical linear models, generalized linear mixed models, nested models, mixed models (in biostatistics), random coefficient or random-effects models (in econometrics), random parameter models, and split-plot designs. (12). A multilevel mul·ti·lev·el adj. Having several levels: a multilevel parking garage. Adj. 1. multilevel - of a building having more than one level version of models such as Equation 2, of which the parameters can be estimated by grouped regression, has been studied by Keen and Engel Engel means angel in German, Danish, Dutch and Norwegian and may refer to:
Including a study effect on the intercept of the relationship specified in Equation 2 gives (using individual index i and study index j) [4] [A.sub.ij] = [[Beta].sub.0] + [[Beta].sub.1][DNL.sub.ij] + [u.sub.0j] + [[Epsilon].sub.ij], where [u.sub.0j] is a random study factor, normally distributed with zero mean and variance [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION A group of characters or symbols representing a quantity or an operation. See arithmetic expression. NOT REPRODUCIBLE re·pro·duce v. re·pro·duced, re·pro·duc·ing, re·pro·duc·es v.tr. 1. To produce a counterpart, image, or copy of. 2. Biology To generate (offspring) by sexual or asexual means. IN ASCII ASCII or American Standard Code for Information Interchange, a set of codes used to represent letters, numbers, a few symbols, and control characters. Originally designed for teletype operations, it has found wide application in computers. ]. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. this model the relation between DNL and annoyance can have a different intercept in each study. The average intercept is equal to [[Beta].sub.0]. The total random component in Equation 4 is equal to [u.sub.0j] + [[Epsilon].sub.ij]. This means that the observations within one study are not independent. Using Equation 4, the probability that a randomly selected person from a randomly selected study, with exposure level DNL, has an annoyance level that exceeds C [i.e., [p.sub.C](DNL)], can be estimated as follows. The probability conditional on the random study factor [u.sub.0] is [p.sub.C](DNL|[u.sub.0]) = Prob(A [is greater than or equal to] C|[u.sub.0]) = Prob([Epsilon] [is greater than or equal to] C - [[Beta].sub.0] - [[Beta].sub.1]DNL - [u.sub.0]|[u.sub.0]). Using this and the assumption that [u.sub.0] is normally distributed with mean zero and variance [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], the following result can be obtained: [5] [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] The term [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] in Equation 5 has the same role as [[Sigma].sup.2] in Equation 3. To estimate the probability that the annoyance level of a randomly selected person from a randomly selected study exceeds C, the four parameters [[Beta].sub.0], [[Beta].sub.1], [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], and [[Sigma].sup.2] must be estimated. Standard grouped regression analysis could not be used because this assumes independence of the random components. We used SAS (1) (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, www.sas.com) A software company that specializes in data warehousing and decision support software based on the SAS System. Founded in 1976, SAS is one of the world's largest privately held software companies. See SAS System. PROC (language) PROC - The job control language used in the Pick operating system. ["Exploring the Pick Operating System", J.E. Sisk et al, Hayden 1986]. NLMIXED (SAS version 8, SAS Institute SAS Institute Inc., headquartered in Cary, North Carolina, USA, has been a major producer of software since it was founded in 1976 by Anthony Barr, James Goodnight, John Sall and Jane Helwig. , Cary Car·y A town of east-central North Carolina, an industrial suburb of Raleigh. Population: 98,000. , NC, USA) to obtain the estimates, because with this procedure the study effect could be properly taken into account. Given the estimates [b.sub.0], [b.sub.1], [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], and [s.sup.2] of [[Beta].sub.0], [[Beta].sub.1], [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], and [[Sigma].sup.2], respectively, the expected percentage of persons with noise exposure DNL whose annoyance exceeds C can be estimated as follows: [6] [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] Confidence intervals. This subsection subsection Noun any of the smaller parts into which a section may be divided Noun 1. subsection - a section of a section; a part of a part; i.e. explains how the confidence intervals are calculated. The reader who is not mathematically trained may want to skip this subsection. Let x be the transpose trans·pose v. To transfer one tissue, organ, or part to the place of another. of the vector (1, DNL) [i.e., [(1, DNL).sup.t]] with DNL a certain noise level. Let [[Sigma].sub.[Beta]] denote de·note tr.v. de·not·ed, de·not·ing, de·notes 1. To mark; indicate: a frown that denoted increasing impatience. 2. the covariance matrix In statistics and probability theory, the covariance matrix is a matrix of covariances between elements of a vector. It is the natural generalization to higher dimensions of the concept of the variance of a scalar-valued random variable. of the coefficients [[Beta].sub.0] and [[Beta].sub.1]. Furthermore, b is the vector of estimates [([b.sub.0], [b.sub.1]).sup.t]. Then the 95% lower and upper confidence limits of the expected annoyance at exposure level DNL are [7] [C.sub.L,U] = [x.sup.t]b [+ or -] 1.96 [square root of ([x.sup.t][S.sub.b]x)] The confidence limits for [p.sub.C](DNL) are [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], where s is an estimate of [Sigma], [s.sub.0] is an estimate of [Sigma].sub.0], and [C.sub.L,U] is given by Equation 7. Results The Model in Equation 4 was fitted separately for aircraft, road traffic, and railways because earlier analyses demonstrated significant differences between the relationships for these types of sources (5). Figure 1 (for DNL) and Figure 2 (for DENL) show the percentage of persons who are (at least) a little annoyed (annoyance [is greater than or equal to] 28), annoyed (annoyance [is greater than or equal to] 50), and highly annoyed (annoyance [is greater than or equal to] 72). In addition to the curves, the corresponding confidence intervals are also shown. The estimates of the coefficients [[Beta].sub.0], [[Beta].sub.1], [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII], and [[Sigma].sup.2] for aircraft, road traffic, and railways are presented in Table 3 (for DNL) and Table 4 (for DENL) with their estimated standard errors and significance levels. Comparing the estimates of [MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] and [[Sigma].sup.2] shows that there is a significant between-study variation for aircraft and road traffic, but the within-study variation is much larger. The order of magnitude A change in quantity or volume as measured by the decimal point. For example, from tens to hundreds is one order of magnitude. Tens to thousands is two orders of magnitude; tens to millions is three orders of magnitude, etc. of the within-study variation, and hence of the total variation, is equal for aircraft, road traffic, and railways. [GRAPHS OMITTED]
Table 3. The estimated coefficients of Equation 5 using DNL as noise
exposure metric for aircraft, road traffic, and railways separately.
Parameter Estimate SE p-Value
Aircraft (27,081
observations; 19 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -89.67 3.30 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.16 0.0406 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 81.05 26.93 0.0075
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1185.90 20.11 < 0.0001
Road traffic (19,172
observations; 26 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -105.72 3.89 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.21 0.0473 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 150.32 42.93 0.0018
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1150.08 18.65 < 0.0001
Railways (7,632,
observations; 8 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -107.45 6.16 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.06 0.0819 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 51.01 26.90 0.0998
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1043.43 44.32 < 0.0001
Table 4. The estimated coefficients of Equation 5 using DENL as noise
exposure metric for aircraft, road traffic, and railways separately.
Parameter Estimate SE p-Value
Aircraft (27,081
observations; 19 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -91.42 3.30 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.17 0.0407 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 77.64 25.83 0.0076
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1187.11 20.13 < 0.0001
Road traffic (19,172
observations; 26 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -106.97 3.91 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.22 0.0476 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 150.54 42.99 0.0018
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1150.71 18.66 < 0.0001
Railways (7,632
observations; 8 studies)
[[Beta].sub.0] -110.09 6.33 < 0.0001
[[Beta].sub.1] 2.10 0.0840 < 0.0001
[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT
REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] 53.86 28.55 0.1013
[[Sigma].sup.2] 1078.73 47.21 < 0.0001
The obtained curves can be approximated accurately with third-order polynomials using source-independent exposure values for zero %LA (namely, 32 dB), %A (namely, 37 dB), and for %HA (namely, 42 dB). Approximations for DNL are presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Approximations for DNL and DENL.
Measure/source DNL DENL
%LA
Aircraft -5.741 x [10.sup.-4] -6.158 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-32).sup.3] [(DENL-32).sup.3]
+ 2.863 x [10.sup.-2] + 3.410 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-32).sup.2] [(DENL-32).sup.2]
+ 1.912 (DNL-32) + 1.738 (DENL-32)
Road traffic -6.188 x [10.sup.-4] -6.235 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-32).sup.3] [(DENL-32).sup.3]
+ 5.379 x [10.sup.-2] + 5.509 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-32).sup.2] [(DENL-32).sup.2]
+ 0.723 (DNL-32) + 0.6693 (DENL-32)
Railways -3.343 x [10.sup.-4] -3.229 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-32).sup.3] [(DENL-32).sup.3]
+ 4.918 x [10.sup.-2] + 4.871 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-32).sup.2] [(DENL-32).sup.2]
+ 0.175 (DNL-32) + 0.1673 (DENL-32)
%A
Aircraft 1.460 x [10.sup.-5] 8.588 x [10.sup.-6]
[(DNL-37).sup.3] [(DENL-37).sup.3]
+ 1.511 x [10.sup.-2] + 1.777 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-37).sup.2] [(DENL-37).sup.2]
+ 1.346 (DNL-37) + 1.221 (DENL-37)
Road traffic 1.732 x [10.sup.-4] 1.795 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-37).sup.3] [(DENL-37).sup.3]
+ 2.079 x [10.sup.-2] + 2.110 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-37).sup.2] [(DENL-37).sup.2]
+ 0.566 (DNL-37) + 0.5353 (DENL-37)
Railways 4.552 x [10.sup.-4] 4.538 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-37).sup.3] [(DENL-37).sup.3]
+ 9.400 x [10.sup.-3] + 9.482 x [10.sup.-3]
[(DNL-37).sup.2] [(DENL-37).sup.2]
+ 0.212 (DNL-37) + 0.2129 (DENL-37)
%HA
Aircraft -1.395 x [10.sup.-4] -9.199 x [10.sup.-5]
[(DNL-42).sup.3] [(DENL-42).sup.3]
+ 4.081 x [10.sup.-2] + 3.932 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-42).sup.2] [(DENL-42).sup.2]
+ 0.342 (DNL-42) + 0.2939 (DENL-42)
Road traffic 9.994 x [10.sup.-4] 9.868 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-42).sup.3] [(DENL-42).sup.3]
- 1.523 x [10.sup.-2] - 1.436 x [10.sup.-2]
[(DNL-42).sup.2] [(DENL-42).sup.2]
+ 0.538 (DNL-42) + 0.5118 (DENL-42)
Railways 7.158 x [10.sup.-4] 7.239 x [10.sup.-4]
[(DNL-42).sup.3] [(DENL-42).sup.3]
- 7.774 x [10.sup.-3] - 7.851 x [10.sup.-3]
[(DNL-42).sup.2] [(DENL-42).sup.2]
+ 0.163 (DNL-42) + 0.1695 (DENL-42)
Figures 3 (DNL) and 4 (DENL) show that the approximations are almost equal to the estimated curves. Curves for other annoyance cutoff points, C, can be obtained by substituting the chosen C and the estimates of the coefficients (Tables 3 and 4) in Equation 6. [GRAPHS OMITTED] An alternative to measures such as %LA, %A, and %HA is the mean annoyance. For establishing the mean annoyance as a function of DNL or DENL, it is important to note that the estimated annoyance distribution is non-zero Adj. 1. non-zero - not involving zero cardinal - being or denoting a numerical quantity but not order; "cardinal numbers" outside the interval [0,100], whereas the actual annoyance scores are restricted to that interval. Consequently, it is not the mean of the estimated normal annoyance distribution, but the mean of the corresponding censored normal distribution, that is an estimate of the mean annoyance observed with a scale from 0 to 100. Discussion and Conclusion We presented a model of the distribution of noise annoyance with the mean varying as a function of the noise exposure; DNL and DENL were used as noise descriptors. Because the entire annoyance distribution has been modeled, any annoyance measure that summarizes this distribution can be calculated from the model. The model has been fitted to data from noise annoyance studies for aircraft, road traffic, and railways separately. Polynomial approximations of relationships implied by the model for combinations of exposure and annoyance measures were presented. These approximations are easier to use for practical calculations than the model itself because the model involves a normal distribution. The present results are based on the same data set that was previously used to establish relationships between DNL and %HA (5). In this paper we provide better estimates of the confidence intervals due to the improved model of the relationship between annoyance and noise exposure. Moreover, relationships using descriptors other than DNL and %HA, which are presented here, have not been established earlier on the basis of a large data set. The predictability of the annoyance of the general population exposed to a certain noise level (DNL or DENL) is quantified by the width of the confidence interval at that noise level for the noise and annoyance measure concerned. The exposure-response functions and their curves presented here are only to be used for aircraft, road traffic, and railway noise. The curves are not necessarily valid for specific sources such as helicopters, low-flying military aircraft, train shunting Shunting The act of connecting an electrical element in parallel with (across) another element. The shunting connection is shown in illus. a. noise, shipping noise, or aircraft noise on the ground. The curves were derived for adults on the basis of surveys distributed over countries as shown in Table 2. On the basis of inspection of the curves presented earlier (5), we hypothesize hy·poth·e·size v. hy·poth·e·sized, hy·poth·e·siz·ing, hy·poth·e·siz·es v.tr. To assert as a hypothesis. v.intr. To form a hypothesis. that there are no important differences between countries in the reaction of the population to similar noise exposures, but this needs to be investigated further. The validity of the presented curves depends to a large extent on the validity of the data used. The model of annoyance as a function of noise exposure (described by DNL or DENL) was fitted to the data from a large set of field studies in which noise exposure and noise annoyance were determined. For most other environmental pollutants environmental pollutants, n.pl the substances and conditions, including noise, that adversely affect the health and well-being of the people within a community. , the situation is less favorable fa·vor·a·ble adj. 1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds. 2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis. 3. because only data from animal studies are available, which must be extrapolated to humans. This extrapolation (mathematics, algorithm) extrapolation - A mathematical procedure which estimates values of a function for certain desired inputs given values for known inputs. If the desired input is outside the range of the known values this is called extrapolation, if it is inside then involves strong assumptions regarding the relation between effects in animals and effects in humans and strong assumptions regarding the relation between effects of high exposures in a relatively short time interval in the laboratory and effects of long-term low exposures in real life. Such assumptions were not necessary here because noise annoyance was studied extensively, directly with humans in the relevant exposure situations. There are few environmental pollutants, if any, for which there is such an extensive set of valid data for deriving exposure-response relationships or thresholds. The noise annoyance curves that have been found have rather narrow confidence intervals. This means that the location of these curves in the population is known rather accurately. Nevertheless, substantial deviations from the predicted distribution of annoyance responses for limited groups at individual sites must be expected because random factors, individual and local circumstances CIRCUMSTANCES, evidence. The particulars which accompany a fact. 2. The facts proved are either possible or impossible, ordinary and probable, or extraordinary and improbable, recent or ancient; they may have happened near us, or afar off; they are public or , and study characteristics affect the noise annoyance. However, in many cases the prediction on the basis of a norm curve that is valid for the entire population is a more suitable basis for policy than the actual annoyance of a particular individual or group. For example, a norm curve is useful when exposure limits for dwellings and noise abatement A reduction, a decrease, or a diminution. The suspension or cessation, in whole or in part, of a continuing charge, such as rent. With respect to estates, an abatement is a proportional diminution or reduction of the monetary legacies, a disposition of property by will, when measures are discussed. Equity and consistency require that limits and abatement measures do not depend on the parculiarities of the persons and their actual circumstances. For similar reasons, a norm curve also can be used to estimate the number of highly annoyed persons in the vicinity of an airport, road, or railway when different scenarios concerning extension of these activities or emission reductions, for example, are to be compared. That the norm curve does not take local circumstances or reactions to a change in exposure itself into account is considered advantageous for many purposes. Equity and consistency of policy would not be served if in each case the actual annoyance is taken as the only basis for these evaluations. The above concept of equity stresses the acceptance of equal exposures for all individuals. This kind of equity is generally strived for in environmental protection. After limits have been established on the basis of studies among the general population or a sensitive group, they are applied to any specific population irrespective of irrespective of prep. Without consideration of; regardless of. irrespective of preposition despite the match between that specific population and the study population. Nonetheless, another form of equity that stesses equal tolerance with respect to the individual effect may be useful in certain circumstances. At the local level measures may be taken on the basis of the actual, individual response to the noise exposures. A survey is needed to obtain insight in such place- and time-bound responses. To put it in another way, the exposure-response functions and their curves can be used for strategic assessment. They can be used in target setting, in translating noise maps into overviews of numbers of persons annoyed, in cost-benefit analyses, and in environmental health impact assessments. When used in environmental health impact assessments, they give insight to the situation that is expected in the long term. They are not applicable to local, complaint-type situations or to the assessment of the short-term Short-term Any investments with a maturity of one year or less. short-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss on the value of an asset that has been held less than a specified period of time. effects of a change of noise climate. With the present state of the art, the annoyance in those cases can be assesessed only by conducting a noise annoyance survey in the situation concerned. In principle, the estimation of the curves and their confidence intervals can be further elaborated by incorporating study site as an extra level in the analysis. In most studies, a limited number of study sites were selected first, and then respondents were selected at random at each site. Because it is likely that site characteristics other than the noise exposure levels at the site affect the annoyance, incorporating the sites as an extra level in the analysis would be an improvement. A site level was not included in the present analyses because the available data sets do not contain comparable definitions of sites. Another, more important elaboration of the present model would be the inclusion of more (exposure) variables as predictors of annoyance, in addition to DNL or DENL (at the most exposed side of a dwelling dwelling an abnormality of gait in a horse in which there is a momentary hesitation before the foot is placed on the ground. ). Most interesting are factors that can be influenced by policy. Examples of such factors are the sound insulation insulation (ĭn'səlā`shən, ĭn'sy –), use of materials or devices to inhibit or prevent the conduction of heat or of electricity. of the dwelling and the
presence of a relatively quiet side of the dwelling. The latter factor
depends on the configuration and orientation of the building relative to
the noise source. The purpose then would be to establish a model of the
annoyance reactions in the population as a function of DNL or DENL, the
sound insulation of the dwelling, and the level at the most quiet side
of the dwelling.REFERENCES AND NOTES (1.) Lambert J, Vallet Vallet is a commune in the département of Loire-Atlantique and the Pays de la Loire region of France. The town is located in the Muscadet region. Coordinates: M. Study Related to the Preparation of a Communication on a Future EC Noise Policy. Report 9420 prepared for CEC-DG XI. Bron Bron is a new town in France, approximately 10 km to the east of Lyon. It is a commune Rhône département and the Rhône-Alpes région of France. It is the sixth-largest suburb of the city of Lyon, and is adjacent to its east side. , France:INRETS-LEN, 1994. (2.) Al-harthy I, Tamura Tamura (usually written 田村), a Japanese placename and family name, may refer to: In places:
(3.) Schultz TJ. Synthesis of social surveys on noise annoyance. J Acoust Soc Am 64:377-405 (1978). (4.) Fidell S, Barber A barber (from the Latin barba, "beard") is someone whose occupation is to cut any type of hair, give shaves, and trim beards. In previous times, barbers also performed surgery and dentistry. DS, Schultz TJ. Updating a dosage-effect relationship for the prevalence of annoyance due to general transportation noise. J Acoust Soc Am 89:221-233 (1991). (5.) Miedema HME HME Home Medical Equipment HME Home Media Engine (TiVo) HME Heat and Moisture Exchange HME Hierarchical Mixtures-of-Experts HME Happy Meal Ethernet (UNIX driver) HME Honeymoon Experience , Vos H. Exposure-response relationships for transportation noise. J Acoust Soc Am 104(6):3432-3445 (1988). (6.) Fields JM. An Updated Catalog catalog, descriptive list, on cards or in a book, of the contents of a library. Assurbanipal's library at Nineveh was cataloged on shelves of slate. The first known subject catalog was compiled by Callimachus at the Alexandrian Library in the 3d cent. B.C. of 360 Social Surveys of Residents Reactions to Environmental Noise (1943-1993). Atlanta Atlanta (ətlăn`tə, ăt–), city (1990 pop. 394,017), state capital and seat of Fulton co., NW Ga., on the Chattahoochee R. and Peachtree Creek, near the Appalachian foothills; inc. 1847. , GA:Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology, in Atlanta, Ga.; coeducational; state supported; chartered 1885, opened 1888. It is a member school in the university system of Georgia. Significant among its facilities and programs are the Frank H. , 1999. (7.) EU/DG Environment. Proposal for a European Parliament European Parliament, a branch of the governing body of the European Union (EU). It convenes on a monthly basis in Strasbourg, France; most meetings of the separate parliamentary committees are held in Brussels, Belgium, and its Secretariat is located in Luxembourg. and Council Directive on the Approximation approximation /ap·prox·i·ma·tion/ (ah-prok?si-ma´shun) 1. the act or process of bringing into proximity or apposition. 2. a numerical value of limited accuracy. of the Laws of the Member States Relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc the Assessment and Reduction of Environmental Noise. Brussels Brussels (brŭ`səlz), Fr. Bruxelles, Du. Brussel, city and region (1995 pop. 948,122), 63 sq mi (162 sq km), capital of Belgium, central Belgium, on the Senne River and at the junction of the Charleroi-Brussels and Willebroek :EU/DG Environment, 2000. (8.) ISO (1) See ISO speed. (2) (International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, www.iso.ch) An organization that sets international standards, founded in 1946. The U.S. member body is ANSI. . Acoustics--Description and Measurement of Environmental Noise. ISO 1996-2. Geneva Geneva, canton and city, Switzerland Geneva (jənē`və), Fr. Genève, canton (1990 pop. 373,019), 109 sq mi (282 sq km), SW Switzerland, surrounding the southwest tip of the Lake of Geneva. :International Standards Organization, 1987. (9.) Miedema HME, Vos H, de Jong De Jong is the most common Dutch surname. Many people bear this name, including many important historical figures. Some of these people are mentioned below. De Jong may mean:
(10.) Miedema HME. Response Functions for Environmental Noise in Residential Areas. Report no. 92.021. Leiden, Netherlands:TNO-PG, 1992. (11.) Long JS. Regression Models for Categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional. A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding. Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA:Sage Publications This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. , 1997. (12.) Goldstein Gold·stein , Joseph Leonard Born 1940. American biochemist. He shared a 1985 Nobel Prize for discoveries related to cholesterol metabolism. H. Multilevel Statistical Models. 2nd ed. London London, city, Canada London, city (1991 pop. 303,165), SE Ont., Canada, on the Thames River. The site was chosen in 1792 by Governor Simcoe to be the capital of Upper Canada, but York was made capital instead. London was settled in 1826. :Edward Arnold Edward Arnold can refer to:
(13.) Keen A, Engel B. Analysis of a mixed model for ordinal (mathematics) ordinal - An isomorphism class of well-ordered sets. data by iterative it·er·a·tive adj. 1. Characterized by or involving repetition, recurrence, reiteration, or repetitiousness. 2. Grammar Frequentative. Noun 1. re-weighted REML REML Restricted Maximum Likelihood (statistical) Statistica Neerlandica 51(2):129-144 (1997). (14.) SAS. SAS Reference Manual. Cary, NC:SAS Institute, 1999. (15.) Miedema HME, Vos H. Supplement to J Acoust Soc Am 104(6), December 1998 "Exposure-Response Relationships for Transportation Noise." Leiden, Netherlands:TNO-PG, 1999. Appendix Relation between DENL and DNL Expectations regarding DENL - DNL on the basis of time patterns. DNL has been used as the noise metric (5). Here general rules are derived for translating DNL into DENL. These general rules are used in the analyses in this paper only if DENL could not be determined on the basis of (estimates of) the [L.sub.Aeq] in terms of which DENL is defined. There is no consistent relation between DNL and DENL. The difference between the two metrics depends on the time pattern of the noise exposure. The possible differences are restricted if it is assumed that the noise level does not increase during the evening and the night; more specifically, if [L.sub.Aeq](0700-1900 hr) [is greater than or equal to] [L.sub.Aeq] (1900-2200 hr) [is greater than or equal to] [L.sub.Aeq](2200-2300 hr) [is greater than or equal to] [L.sub.Aeq] (2300-0700 hr). This assumption will hold for the vast majority of situations. Assuming a decreasing pattern of [L.sub.Aeq] as described above, the lowest value of DENL - DNL is equal to -0.06 dB. This means that it can be stated without significant error that DENL - DNL [is greater than or equal to] 0. The highest value of DENL - DNL occurs if the (hourly) [L.sub.Aeq] remains constant until 2200 hr and drops sharply at 2200-2300 hr (and thereafter). Assuming the above described decreasing pattern of [L.sub.Aeq], the maximum value DENL - DNL is equal to 1.56 dB. On the basis of these findings it can be roughly stated that the range of the difference DENL - DNL is 0-1.5 dB. To get a more detailed insight, the difference DENL - DNL has been calculated for various combinations of positive differences between the [L.sub.Aeq] for the successive time intervals: [L.sub.Aeq](0700-1900 hr) - [L.sub.Aeq](1900-2200), [L.sub.Aeq](1900-2200 hr) - [L.sub.Aeq](2200-2300hr), and [L.sub.Aeq](2200-2300) - [L.sub.Aeq](2300-0700 hr). The calculations indicated that both a constant (hourly) [L.sub.Aeq] until 2200 hr and a sharp decrease at 2200-2300 hr are necessary conditions for a value of DENL - DNL that is substantially larger than 0. Because different noise sources have to some extent a typical time pattern, the range 0-1.5 dB can be further restricted for a specific type of noise source. In general, the (hourly) [L.sub.Aeq] caused by trains will not change much until after 2300 hr. For trams there may be a decrease in the evening, but in general there is no sharp decrease between 2200 and 2300 hr. This means that railway noise generally does not fullfill the two requirements for a significant value of DENL - DNL [stability of the (hourly) [L.sub.Aeq] until 2200 hr and a sharp decrease at 2200-2300 hr]. Therefore, this difference will be close to zero for railway noise. In general, the road traffic noise level gradually decreases during the evening, and this decrease often is accelerated in the period 2100-2400 hr. The decrease in the noise level at 2200-2300 hr will in general be smaller than 3 dB. The larger this decrease at 2200-2300 hr, the larger the decrease of the level in the preceding period of the evening will be. Assuming this, the above-mentioned calculations indicate that for road traffic noise DENL - DNL will generally be [is less than] 0.5. For aircraft noise there may be a sharp decrease of the noise level, depending on the operation of the airport. Little can be said about the consequence for the value of DENL - DNL. If a sharp decrease occurs at 2200-2300 hr, then this difference may be 1 dB, but the conditions needed for a value of the difference up to 1.5 dB are not generally expected. Empirical data regarding DENL - DNL. The table below gives an overview of the studies in the TNO archive of noise annoyance studies that contain estimates of (the [L.sub.Aeq] needed to determine) both DENL and DNL. Inspection of scatter plots See scatter diagram. with DENL and DNL on the axes axes [L., Gr.] plural of axis. The straight lines which intersect at right angles and on which graphs are drawn. Usually the horizontal axis is the x-axis and the vertical one the y-axis. Called also axes of reference. showed that the data points lie close to the line DENL = DNL and that the small deviations from that line are not level dependent. Therefore, the relation between DENL and DNL is summarized in Table A1 by the average value per data set for the difference DENL - DNL. The values for the average in Table A1 confirm the previous analysis on the basis of the time pattern; that is, the average for railways nearly equals zero, the averages for road traffic are slightly larger but also close to zero, while the averages for aircraft noise are larger and vary. Table A1. Difference between DENL and DNL found for various studies. Fields' code (6) DENL-DNL n Aircraft FRA-239 1.5 565 NET-240 0.6 573 NET-371 0.6 11,211 UKD-238 0.5 598 Road traffic FRA-239 0.2 524 GER-192 0.1 893 JPN-369 0.1 823 NET-106 0.1 420 NET-240 0.2 473 NET-258 0.1 365 NET-362 0.2 293 SWI-173 0.2 1,371 TRK-367 0.2 154 UKD-238 0.3 536 Railway GER-192 -0.1 966 Conclusion. On the basis of the expectations derived from the time patterns of the noise level and the available relevant empirical evidence, we conclude that the following equations can be used to transform the DNL of a noise exposure into DENL: Aircraft DENL = DNL + 0.6 Road traffic DENL = DNL + 0.2 Railway DENL = DNL These are general rules that do not necessarily give the precise relationship between the two noise metrics for an individual case. However, the analysis of the time pattern of the noise level indicates that values of the difference DENL - DNL outside the range 0-1.5 dB will be rare. Henk M.E. Miedema and Catharina G.M. Oudshoorn TNO-PG, Leiden, The Netherlands Address correspondence to H.M.E. Miedema, TNO-PG, P.O.Box 2215, 2301 CE Leiden, The Netherlands. Telephone: 31 71 518 1813. Fax: 31 71 518 1920. E-mail: hme.miedema@pg.tno.nl Received 27 July 2000; accepted 8 November 2000. |
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