Annex C Institutional arrangements for development planning at the regional level.Since the early 1990s, Ethiopia has witnessed far-reaching and dramatic changes in intergovernmental in·ter·gov·ern·men·tal adj. Being or occurring between two or more governments or divisions of a government. in arrangements. In the past few years, Ethiopia has launched an ambitious political, administrative, and fiscal regionalization regionalization Managed care The subdivision of a broadly available service–eg, a blood bank, into quasi-autonomous regional centers, capable of making decisions and providing more cost-effective and/or faster service to hospitals and health care facilities, program. The consequent devolution devolution n. the transfer of rights, powers, or an office (public or private) from one person or government to another. (See: devolve) DEVOLUTION, eccl. law. of powers and responsibilities from the federal government to the regional governments has changed the nature of the challenge facing development planners wishing to implement the women's policy in Ethiopia. The regional framework was established by a series of proclamations, issued by the transitional government in 1992/93 and reiterated in the 1995 constitution. The key proclamations include proclamation An act that formally declares to the general public that the government has acted in a particular way. A written or printed document issued by a superior government executive, such as the president or governor, which sets out such a declaration by the government. 7/1992, which establishes the national and regional governments, proclamation 33/ 1992, which defines the sharing of revenue between the central government and regional self-governments, and proclamation 41/1993, which defines the powers and duties of the central and regional executive organs of government (amendments 73/1993). Regional governments are now responsible for establishing regional administrations that best advance self-rule. Under the new arrangements, the federal government formulates broad policy on all important matters, and regional governments have full autonomy in preparing and implementing development plans within the broad policy framework. All powers not given separately to the federal government are reserved for the regions. The Federal Government's powers include matters related to defense, foreign affairs foreign affairs pl.n. Affairs concerning international relations and national interests in foreign countries. , economic policy, citizenship, declaration of a state of emergency, and printing of currency. The central government ministries are expected to: * Initiate and implement policies * Prepare and implement plans and budgets * Enforce the laws, regulations, and directives of the central government * Undertake studies and research and collect and compile statistical data * Give assistance and advice to regional self-governments and ensure that regional executive organs implement laws, regulations, and directives properly * Enter into contracts and international agreements in accordance with the laws * Perform the duties specified in the proclamation and by other laws. Regions can also raise revenue as stated in proclamation 33. Revenues reserved for the regions include personal income taxes, rural land use fees, agricultural income taxes, profit and sales taxes, and taxes collected from the rental of houses and properties owned by the regional governments. The regional council is the supreme legislative organ in each region and consists of members elected according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. law. Regional councils are accountable to the electorate and to the Council of Representatives at the center. Regional councils are responsible for deciding "their own national identities and rights on the basis of the rights guaranteed under the charter." They may issue a regional constitution or laws consistent with the laws of the federal government. They may also determine the seat of government and the working language of the regional government. They approve the social and economic development programs of the regional government and establish bodies for advancing the social and economic development of the region. They may also issue designs, directives, and strategies for developing and protecting the environment. The regional executive committee is the highest executive body of the regional government and is headed by a regional president. The members of the regional executive committee are elected by the members of the regional council. The committee is accountable to the central Council of Ministers for the implementation of federal laws and policies and to the regional council for the discharge of regional duties. Each regional government may establish, as necessary, any of the 20 regional bureaus listed in section 33 of proclamation 41 /1993. Each bureau is led by a bureau head who is accountable to the regional executive committee and is responsible for preparing and submitting draft laws necessary for the proper execution of the bureau's activities. They may, among other duties: * Prepare and implement plans and a budget (1) * Ensure the implementation of laws, regulations, and directives * Undertake studies and research; collect and compile statistics; transmit them to the concerned central executive body * Enter into contracts according to the law. Regional governments may also establish an intermediate hierarchy between the wereda and the regional levels to facilitate efficient administration. Consequently, zonal entities have been established in all regions to implement laws, regulations, and directives of the regional councils at the zonal level. The promulgation PROMULGATION. The order given to cause a law to be executed, and to make it public it differs from publication. (q.v.) 1 Bl. Com. 45; Stat. 6 H. VI., c. 4. 2. also establishes wereda councils with members directly elected by the people of the wereda. The wereda council oversees the social services social services Noun, pl welfare services provided by local authorities or a state agency for people with particular social needs social services npl → servicios mpl sociales and economic development of the wereda, approves plans and programs, and supervises their implementation. There are no zonal councils, although a regional government may establish a zonal administrative committee. The wereda council has powers to issue laws and to prepare and implement social and economic development plans. The wereda executive committee--the ex ecutive body of the wereda council--consists of members of the wereda council and is headed by a wereda chairman. The committee is responsible, among other duties, for implementing laws and preserving, developing, and tending the natural environment within its jurisdiction. Regional governments may determine the powers and duties of the executive bodies of the wereda and other administrative levels in conformity with the provisions in the proclamation. In some regions, for example Oromiya, the kebeles or village-level entities, form the link with grassroots organizations It may never be fully completed or, depending on its its nature, it may be that it can never be completed. However, new and revised entries in the list are always welcome. and ensure their participation in development planning. The regional government has established these structures and defined their roles, powers, and responsibilities. The kebele assemblies and their kebele executive committees are bodies for the grassroots implementation of laws enacted by higher bodies. They may implement their own development programs upon approval by the respective kebele assemblies. Development Planning Process The process of development planning is initiated through the issuance of circulars by the planning and economic development bureau to the bodies of the regional governments. These circulars include guidance on the objectives, priorities, dates of submission, formats of presentation, and amount of resources likely to be available. The regional councils identify the priority areas for the regional development plan. For example, for fiscal 1997, industrialization industrialization Process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain during the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and led by agricultural development and public investment in education, health, water development, and infrastructure were the priorities in some regions. The size of the annual budget is then determined by the planning and finance bureaus after discussions with the sector heads. It is then approved by the regional councils and, as a matter of convention, the budget is based on a review of capital expenditures in the preceding year. In January of each year, this budget is communicated to the zones. Zonal development plans are then received by April or May. The plans are reviewed and collated at the regional level and then submitted to the regional council for approval. They are then sent to the central Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation and receive parliament's approval before the start of the fiscal year (July). As a matter of convention, the ministry does not alter, amend, or modify the budget approved by regional councils. The actual process of planning, however, differs from region to region. It depends to a large extent on the availability of units or capacity at the subregional levels and on the state of infrastructure. In Oromiya, wereda and zonal authorities are involved in the planning process and are responsible for preparing the first set of plans for their respective weredas. These plans are then consolidated at the regional level. This process is described in detail here, because it is representative of the planning process undertaken in larger regions. Only sectoral bureaus that have a presence at the wereda level, and have adequate capacity, are able to adopt a bottom-up approach. In some cases, sector bureaus mobilize mo·bi·lize v. 1. To make mobile or capable of movement. 2. To restore the power of motion to a joint. 3. To release into the body, as glycogen from the liver. and send relevant experts or planners to work with wereda officials. In Oromiya, bureaus with branches at the wereda level include agriculture, health, education, finance, justice, energy, mines and water, and industry, trade, and tourism. At the wereda level, the submission of plans needs to be cleared by the wereda councils. However, this procedure is reportedly a formality formality, in chemistry: see chemical equilibrium; concentration. because the councils and their respective executive committees lack the requisite skills and advisory bodies to conduct any analytical work. It is also understood that wereda council members often add their own project lists to the submissions for approval without regard to cost or other factors. Therefore, reportedly, zonal authorities do not attach much importance to these plans and sometimes rely on proposals submitted directly by mobile planners identified by the zonal and regional bureaus or wereda authorities. At the zonal level, where all the sector bureaus have branches and are better equipped and staffed, there is more systematic screening and prioritization of the development plan for the zone. These zonal plans, vetted by the zonal sectoral authorities, are then submitted to the planning and economic departments at the zonal level as well as to the regional sector bureaus for information and follow-up. The planning and economic development offices in the 12 zones then evaluate the financial, technical, and institutional aspects as well as the output in terms of marketability or benefit to society. They then consolidate the zonal sectoral plans and send them to their respective zonal administrations for approval, with copies to their own regional planning bureau for further evaluation and follow-up. The zonal administrations may approve of the plan in its entirety or modify it before sending it to the regional executive committee for approval. In the southern region, development planning adopts, to the extent possible, a bottom-up approach. However, the health, education, and agricultural bureaus are the only sectors with a presence at the kebele level, and, therefore, in all other sectors, the wereda is the focal point focal point n. See focus. for grassroots inputs. In Afar, the process is very different, perhaps reflective of some of the weaker regions. The development plan is formulated and determined by the regional sectoral bureaus, resulting in the final plan being not more than a desk study, which rarely responds to the needs and priorities of the people, much less women. Although the regional planning bureau is fully aware of the limitations of such a plan, critical constraints prevent them from preparing the regional plan in a participatory manner: * Shortage of qualified human resources The fancy word for "people." The human resources department within an organization, years ago known as the "personnel department," manages the administrative aspects of the employees. to undertake evaluation, planning, and implementation, in particular at zonal and wereda levels, where, until recently, no planning units had been established * Lack of logistical lo·gis·tic also lo·gis·ti·cal adj. 1. Of or relating to symbolic logic. 2. Of or relating to logistics. [Medieval Latin logisticus, of calculation supplies * Lack of infrastructure (in particular, roads and communications), inhibiting travel and communication between the center and subregional administrative units and with the largely seminomadic communities * Lack of accurate and reliable data in the region. In Gambella, the plan is also developed by the sectoral bureaus based on an assessment of the needs of communities in their respective sectors. The planning bureau formulates the plan based on a socioeconomic survey undertaken in 1995, wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. priority areas and activities are identified by the weredas. In Amhara, like in other relatively large regions, the structural disparities and the administrative and staffing capacity, in particular beyond the zonal level, limit the functional efficiency of the flow of information from the kebele and wereda level to higher administrative levels. Thus, the development process varies from sector to sector and from zone to zone. Implementation of the Women's Policy Within this broad institutional framework for development planning, all regions have established women's affairs bureaus to coordinate and monitor the implementation of the women's policy and to facilitate achievement of its objectives. These bureaus are lodged in the regional council's office, with the head of the bureau reporting to the regional president. They are a unit of the regional council's office and receive a small recurrent budget for their staff and other expenses. Regional councils are divided into four sections: economic, social, planning and finance, and security administration and political. The sectoral bureaus are directly accountable to one of these sections. The structure and nature of the staff vary from region to region. Women's affairs bureaus are responsible for creating an enabling environment for ensuring the effective implementation of the women's policy at the regional level. According to the women's policy (part B, sec. 3), the bureaus: * Create awareness of the structure and objectives of the women's policy on women within their respective region * Organize women's affairs units at the regional level * Facilitate and coordinate governmental and nongovernmental activities related to women * Formulate policy proposals at the regional level * Encourage research and other activities that may be required to raise the visibility of women's issues in society * Make efforts to increase women's active participation in different activities * Follow up on the integration of women's concerns and issues in regional policies and ensure that they are properly addressed in strategies, plans, programs, and projects at the regional level. Before, and immediately after, the announcement of the women's policy, most regions appointed a focal person to staff the women's affairs bureau. The regional civil service bureau also accepted the structure and approved the detailed structures according to the existing principles of the civil service system. These offices were either bureaus or sectors, but the nomenclature nomenclature /no·men·cla·ture/ (no´men-kla?cher) a classified system of names, as of anatomical structures, organisms, etc. binomial nomenclature did not signify sig·ni·fy v. sig·ni·fied, sig·ni·fy·ing, sig·ni·fies v.tr. 1. To denote; mean. 2. To make known, as with a sign or word: signify one's intent. any change in the mandate or accountability of the office. Apart from these women's affairs bureaus, there are also women's focal points in the regional bureaus, generally referred to as women's departments. Again, the number and capacity differ from region to region, but in most regions, women's affairs departments exist in the agricultural bureau, the education bureau, the labor and social affairs bureau, and disaster prevention and preparedness pre·par·ed·ness n. The state of being prepared, especially military readiness for combat. Noun 1. preparedness - the state of having been made ready or prepared for use or action (especially military action); "putting them bureau. Placing the women's affairs department in the regional council was intended to strengthen its role as a coordinating office for other sectoral bureaus and development agencies on gender matters. As part of the sectoral bureau, they prepare projects and plans for inclusion in the region's annual plan and budget. Also, they advise their bureau on the gender-sensitivity of plans and projects proposed under the sector before the proposal is submitted to the bureau of planning. In Afar, a women's affairs bureau has been established, and, despite the acute shortage of trained staff, has had a positive impact and helped to sensitize sen·si·tize v. To make hypersensitive or reactive to an antigen, such as pollen, especially by repeated exposure. officials to the need to integrate gender concerns in development planning in Afar. One existing staff member is designated as a gender focal person for all five zones and 29 weredas. Focal points are also appointed in three sectoral bureaus: agriculture, education, and culture. The women's affairs bureau has only a working relationship with the focal points in the zones and weredas, all of whom report to the zonal authorities, wereda councils, and sector heads. The women's affairs bureau in Amhara has better technical capacity than the one in Afar, with the regional head and two experts having the qualifications required by the civil service. The region, however, does not have zonal and wereda structures, because it felt further study was necessary to determine what type of structure would be suitable. The women's affairs bureau also felt that assigning focal points in sectoral bureaus was not practical, because it raised expectations that they would address all gender concerns. Amhara therefore proposes making existing staff responsible for mainstreaming gender into the activities of their respective offices. Also, focal points would not be appointed to the sector bureaus. Instead, a gender committee in the sector bureau, drawn from various departments, would ensure that any proposed sectoral plans are gender-sensitive. In Oromiya, the women's affairs department continues to be accountable directly to the regional council president, but the name was changed from "bureau" to "sector" in an effort to increase the prestige of the department. The head of the sector is a political appointee APPOINTEE. A person who is appointed or selected for a particular purpose; as the appointee under a power, is the person who is to receive the benefit of the trust or power. . Technical skills and manpower have been a constraint, even though the Oromiya region's headquarters are situated in Addis Ababa Addis Ababa (ăd`ĭs ăb`əbə) [Amharic,=new flower], city (1994 pop. 2,112,737), capital of Ethiopia. It is situated at c.8,000 ft (2,440 m) on a well-watered plateau surrounded by hills and mountains. . Ten out of the 12 zones have a zonal head of the women's affairs office, but these experts are accountable to the council chairperson chairperson Chairman The head of an academic department. See 'Chair.', Cf Chief. , not the women's affairs bureau, with which they have a working relationship. Focal points exist in the bureaus of agriculture, planning and economic development, education, justice, health, population, labor and social affairs, and industry, trade, and tourism. In the southern region, a promulgation redefined the powers of the office, giving the bureau an independent status (proclamation 9/1996). Although it has the legal status of a bureau, its powers and responsibilities are still to coordinate activities related to women in the region, ensure that development plans are gender-sensitive, and prepare necessary policy proposals. The proclamation also establishes five units within the women's affairs department: education, income-generation and appropriate technology, legal and customary affairs, health and family planning family planning Use of measures designed to regulate the number and spacing of children within a family, largely to curb population growth and ensure each family’s access to limited resources. , and women with special needs. Consequently, for the first time, birr birr 1 n. 1. A whirring sound. 2. Strong forward momentum; driving force. intr.v. birred, birr·ing, birrs To make a whirring sound. 478,000 has been allocated to the head office, the nine zonal offices, and five special weredas for their recurrent costs. In Gambella, as in Afar, there is a severe shortage of manpower, and the bureau is being staffed by persons who do not have the required skills. The structure has remained unchanged, with the bureau head reporting to the regional council chairman. Gender focal persons are appointed at the zonal and wereda levels, even though thev do not possess the competencies required for the job. The bureaus of agriculture, health, disaster prevention and preparedness, labor and social affairs, and justice have all established focal points, but the personnel assigned to these positions are less qualified than those in similar positions not related to gender. There is currently no coordination between the women's affairs department and entities at the sectoral, zonal, or wereda levels. Below the regional level, representation is very weak (see table C-l). The network barely extends to the wereda and is almost nonexistent non·ex·is·tence n. 1. The condition of not existing. 2. Something that does not exist. non at the kebele level. The women's affairs department in the agricultural bureau--the rural women's affairs department--deserves special mention, because in some regions, like the south, this is the only women's department that has a budget based on a plan that it prepares. Moreover, this department has staff at the level of a development center (five peasant associations or kebeles form one development center), making it a truly grassroots body. Thus, the southern region has 512 people, of which only 53 are men. These workers ascertain local needs and send proposals to the wereda offices, ensuring some participation by the beneficiaries. Regional Gender Strategies The transitional government deliberately framed the women's policy in broad terms. Thus, the policy does not provide specific measures for integrating women in the development process. The framers expected regional authorities to prepare action plans or strategies tailored to meet the priority needs of the local regional context. However, except for Oromiya, few regions have prepared a separate strategy or action plan. In other cases, the women's affairs bureaus have prioritized some objectives. However, these are no more than internal objectives of the women's affairs department. Development interventions for women have consisted mostly of separate programs or ad hoc For this purpose. Meaning "to this" in Latin, it refers to dealing with special situations as they occur rather than functions that are repeated on a regular basis. See ad hoc query and ad hoc mode. projects. In most cases, the availability of donor funding seems to have determined the scope and nature of the intervention. Also, the center has attempted to integrate gender concerns in traditional areas like health and education. Therefore, progress has been slow at the regional level. The following paragraphs document regional attempts to integrate gender concerns into development planning. Amhara has prepared a paper on the region's gender strategy or policy, in the form of a baseline paper on gender problems and development priorities. This document contains an in-depth analysis of issues pertaining per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. to rural, urban, and elderly women and has been approved by the regional government. It reflects an effective development strategy in that it recognizes and reacts to the heterogeneity het·er·o·ge·ne·i·ty n. The quality or state of being heterogeneous. heterogeneity the state of being heterogeneous. of situations in the field, even within Amhara, instead of adopting a homogeneous attitude to policy interventions. The document also examines women and the law, women in politics, NGOs, and institutional responsiveness to women's needs. The information was generated from a multistage, stratified sampling Noun 1. stratified sampling - the population is divided into subpopulations (strata) and random samples are taken of each stratum proportional sampling, representative sampling sampling - (statistics) the selection of a suitable sample for study method, with a sample size of 450 women. The study is perhaps too small to offer conclusive Determinative; beyond dispute or question. That which is conclusive is manifest, clear, or obvious. It is a legal inference made so peremptorily that it cannot be overthrown or contradicted. findings. Nevertheless, it documents the voices of real women. The major part of the document analyzes the socioeconomic and cultural position of women in society as perceived by the protagonists themselves. The process reveals that female inequality is strongly premised upon a subjectivity that is psychologically conditioned to accept unequal gender relations as "right" and "just" because they are anchored in sociocultural norms. Empowerment of women then becomes an important issue for women's affairs bureaus. Male ownership of property, unequal division of property upon divorce, unequal access to education due to early marriage, powerlessness in decisionmaking within both the household and the community are identified as problem areas. The strategy identifies constraints facing women's affairs bureaus: absence of coordination with other bureaus, lack of human resources, and lack of cooperation from other institutions. "Departmentalize de·part·men·tal·ize tr.v. de·part·men·tal·ized, de·part·men·tal·iz·ing, de·part·men·tal·iz·es To organize into departments. de is alienation alienation, in property laws: see tenure. alienation In the social sciences context, the state of feeling estranged or separated from one's milieu, work, products of work, or self. ," the document states, pointing out that gender issues need a multisectoral, integrated approach. The document adopts such a strategy by identifying issues and proposing appropriate policy interventions for each sector. The women's affairs department in Oromiya has prepared a five-year development plan for women (1996-2000), which has been approved by the executive committee. The plan identifies harmful cultural attitudes and practices as well as their economic and social conditions as being the main constraints to women's development. The plan also identifies polygamy polygamy: see marriage. polygamy Marriage to more than one spouse at a time. Although the term may also refer to polyandry (marriage to more than one man), it is often used as a synonym for polygyny (marriage to more than one woman), which appears , abduction, and the prevention of pregnant women from taking nutritive nutritive /nu·tri·tive/ (noo´tri-tiv) nutritional. nu·tri·tive adj. 1. Of or relating to nutrition. 2. Nutritious; nourishing. food (because of fear that the child will be overweight) as areas of serious concern. The plan indicates that school-age children and women are the most affected by these factors. The long-term objective of the plan is to enable women to access development benefits, namely resources such as land and health and education services. The short-term objectives are concrete policy actions: providing credit to poor women, increasing training opportunities, deepening research on the socioeconomic status of women, collecting baseline data for further policy interventions, addressing harmful cultural practices, and using the media to trigger attitudinal changes, especially in rural areas. Strategies for implementation include ensuring adequate staff in women's affairs departments and their branches at the zonal level, providing transport and other facilities to those engaged in women's activities, preparing coordinated sectoral plans, giving priority to rural women, and promoting the objectives of the women's policy. The plan also establishes clear, monitorable targets: * Creation of a training center at Nazareth * Implementation of 29 small-scale irrigation irrigation, in agriculture, artificial watering of the land. Although used chiefly in regions with annual rainfall of less than 20 in. (51 cm), it is also used in wetter areas to grow certain crops, e.g., rice. projects with women as beneficiaries * Construction of 172 child care centers * Creation of 436 clubs in schools and workplaces for women * Creation of a handicraft handicraft: see arts and crafts. training center for women * Creation of a small-scale center for training women in dressmaking and handicrafts * Introduction of fuel saving and other appropriate technologies for women in rural areas. The total cost of the action plan is an estimated birr 134.8 million, with recurrent expenditures of birr 45.4 million, a capital budget of birr 42.1 million, and foreign assistance of birr 47.3 million. Out of the total planned investment, birr 50 million is allocated for the proposed women's training center. The design of the center has been completed, and a site has been identified. This plan was prepared with the participation of women focal points in the zones, which in turn collected information from the weredas and women's affairs departments in regional bureaus. Clearly, the lack of skills is a major constraint to women's development. However, it is highly debatable de·bat·a·ble adj. 1. Being such that formal argument or discussion is possible. 2. Open to dispute; questionable. 3. In dispute, as land or territory claimed by more than one country. whether an effective response would be to construct a large and centralized cen·tral·ize v. cen·tral·ized, cen·tral·iz·ing, cen·tral·iz·es v.tr. 1. To draw into or toward a center; consolidate. 2. training center, given the other constraints on women. Irrigation is also a critical need, but again, a separate project for women could undermine the process of integrating gender concerns into planning for the irrigation sector. The plan raises concerns about the women's affairs bureau's capacity to implement such a diverse spectrum of interventions. If the bureau starts implementing projects itself, then its coordination role becomes subsidiary. In Afar, creation of the women's affairs bureau was announced in 1993, but the bureau was not established until 1995. The women's affairs bureau feels that it does not have the capacity to ensure implementation of the women's policy or prepare a regional action plan suitable for their region. Nevertheless, given the low socioeconomic status of women in Afar, the women's affairs bureau has been able to establish some priorities that will guide the work of its office: * Increasing women's awareness of their rights * Improving the living conditions living conditions npl → condiciones fpl de vida living conditions npl → conditions fpl de vie living conditions living of women in the region * Enhancing educational opportunities for Afari women and increasing literacy rates. With this as an action plan, the women's affairs bureau has prepared several training and educational projects for which they have obtained or are seeking funding (see table C-2). The Southern Region does not have a comprehensive strategy for gender development nor a separate action plan for women. However, the bureau has prioritized the following objectives for 1997-98: * Reduce harmful traditional practices, such as female circumcision circumcision (sûr'kəmsĭzh`ən), operation to remove the foreskin covering the glans of the penis. It dates back to prehistoric times and was widespread throughout the Middle East as a religious rite before it was introduced among the , abduction of girls, and rape * Raise awareness among parents, heads of education bureaus, and school teachers of the importance of educating female children * Offer training in self-confidence and leadership to trainees at teacher, health, and agriculture training institutes * Create the capacity for forming village-level women's self-help groups. (2) Gambella does not have a separate gender strategy or action plan. However, the region is implementing a number of programs and projects for women that are being financed by the United Nations Development Programme and some NGOs. Role of Nongovernmental Entities The government does not, by itself, have the capacity to implement the women's policy or effectively deliver services, particularly at the grassroots levels. The needs of women are many and diverse. While the government needs to take leadership in the area by setting public policies and initiating action, women's groups, nongovernmental organizations Transnational organizations of private citizens that maintain a consultative status with the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. Nongovernmental organizations may be professional associations, foundations, multinational businesses, or simply groups with a common interest in , and other bodies can play an important role in supporting the government's efforts to reduce gender inequities. The women's policy requires women's affairs organizations and boards to coordinate the activities of NGOs in the country. Although NGOs constitute important focal points for the delivery of services, very few operate outside urban areas. Local representatives complain about the unfair distribution of NGOs throughout the country and within regions. NGOs tend to locate their projects and activities in areas with better basic facilities. Lack of infrastructure (roads and markets) and a highly dispersed dis·perse v. dis·persed, dis·pers·ing, dis·pers·es v.tr. 1. a. To drive off or scatter in different directions: The police dispersed the crowd. b. population significantly affect NGO NGO abbr. nongovernmental organization Noun 1. NGO - an organization that is not part of the local or state or federal government nongovernmental organization activities. For example, in Afar, no NGO is operating in the northwest part of the region, a relatively poorly developed area. For example, the Christian Relief Development Association directory lists 27 NGOs as working in the Afar region Afar is one of the nine ethnic divisions (kililoch) of Ethiopia, and contains the homeland of the Afar people. Formerly known as Region 2, its current capital is Asayita; a new capital named Semera on the paved Awash - Asseb highway is under construction. . However, according to the disaster prevention and preparedness bureau that registers regional NGOs, only five are working in the region; of these, only the Afar Relief Association works with women. In the southern region, more than 46 NGOs are registered in the area of relief, rehabilitation rehabilitation: see physical therapy. , and development. Eleven of these work with women, in particular in the area of savings and credit, livestock (cattle fattening fat·ten v. fat·tened, fat·ten·ing, fat·tens v.tr. 1. To make plump or fat. 2. To fertilize (land). 3. , diary goat development), and microenterprises, but many have an urban focus. In Amhara, 35 NGOs are operating. None of these, with the exception of Gondar Women's Pottery, concentrates on issues specifically related to women. Development experience has amply demonstrated that women's groups are one of the most effective strategies for seeking women's views. "The groups provide a legitimate social space beyond the home and foster a sense of solidarity that allows women to deal more freely with unfamiliar formal institutions and processes" (World Bank 1995a). However, women's groups are not common in Ethiopia and are a recent phenomenon. Some neighborhood groups may form an idir in urban areas, but such groups are nonexistent in many regions. First, households lived in scattered locations and rarely interacted with other households except during religious or other family celebrations. Second, REWA, the women's association during the derg regime, adopted a very top-down approach. Moreover, they involved women for political purposes and collected resources, but women's groups did not see the fruits of their contribution. Therefore, in all the regions, women resist any form of top-down structure and suspect that such activities would again serve the interests of the government, not of the women's groups. Therefore, groups are often created to facilitate the delivery of services. For example, in the south, NGOs either use service cooperatives or create beneficiary groups. Most NGOs also appoint development agents to assist them in mobilizing women. The International Fund for Agricultural Development International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD), specialized agency of the United Nations with headquarters in Rome, Italy. IFAD grew out of the 1974 World Food Conference; it was established in 1977 and is comprised of 161 member nations. (IFAD) in the south is supporting the regional government's policy to reconstitute re·con·sti·tute tr.v. re·con·sti·tut·ed, re·con·sti·tut·ing, re·con·sti·tutes 1. To provide with a new structure: The parks commission has been reconstituted. 2. and rejuvenate re·ju·ve·nate tr.v. re·ju·ve·nat·ed, re·ju·ve·nat·ing, re·ju·ve·nates 1. To restore to youthful vigor or appearance; make young again. 2. service cooperatives and is directing its services through these cooperatives. In Amhara, NGOs work directly with women through their project offices. Together, these are the arrangements at the regional level for implementing development interventions. Regionalization significantly alters the challenge to development planners, who must now address subnational or regional levels of government. The challenge will be to provide appropriate incentives and remove constraints on the various players in the regions to facilitate the effective implementation of the women's policy. Notes (1.) Bank-financed projects must now be implemented by the regions. For example, although the central government would develop the education policy, the regional education bureau would prepare the plan and the regional program implementing it. Thus, in designing sector investments, it is necessary to understand how priorities fit within the development action plan of each region, because what may be a priority in one region may not be a priority in another. At the same time, if a regulation or law is necessary to implement a national policy effectively in a particular region, that regulation would need to be discussed and initiated with the regional, not the central, authorities. (2.) Wereda offices had been asked to form kebele-based groups using existing grassroots homogeneous or cultural groupings as a nucleus. These groups would function as interest groups for gender issues, lobby for development activities and access to government and donor-funded projects, and become members of local councils. Eventually, the groups could federate fed·er·ate v. fed·er·at·ed, fed·er·at·ing, fed·er·ates v.tr. To cause to join into a league, federal union, or similar association. v.intr. To become united into a federal union. into a women's organization at the wereda, zonal, or regional level.
Table C.1 Representation of Women's Affairs Bureaus and Departments
at the Regional Level and Below, by Gender and Region
Departmental Zonal
units level
Women's Number of Number of
Number and affairs Number focal focal
name of region bureau of units points Total points
2. Afar Yes 19 3 5 5
3. Oromiya Yes 19 7 12 12
4. Amhara Yes 12 0 11 0
7-11. Southern Yes 16 6 14 14
12. Gambella Yes 13 5 2 2
Wereda Kebele
level level
Number and Number of Number of
name of region Total focal points Total focal points
2. Afar 29 29 32 0
3. Oromiya 180 60 564 0
4. Amhara 206 0 337 0
7-11. Southern 72 72 213 NA
12. Gambella 8 8 146 NA
NA = Not available.
Source: Background regional studies, 1997, available in Bank files.
Table C.2 Objectives of the Women's Affairs Bureau in Afar
Funded by Project description
Regional government (to be funded) (1) Construction of a training
center for women
(2) Projects to improve the
living conditions of women
(3) Biogas Project (agricultural
bureau)
Ethiopian Social and (1) Typing training (two cycles)
Rehabilitation
Development Fund (2) Training in handicrafts
production (Ungah), only in
Asayita wereda
Donors
United Nations Development (1) Training in handicrafts
Programme production
(2) Cotton weaving
United Nations Educational, (3) Primary education
Scientific, and Cultural
Organization
United Nations Children's Fund (4) Credit scheme within the
Wereda Integrated Basic Services
(wibs)
Source: Regional background report on Afar, 1997.
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