Anaplasma phagocytophilum infection in small mammal hosts of Ixodes ticks, Western United States.A total of 2,121 small mammals in California This is a list of mammals in California as of March 2006, as recognized by the California Department of Fish and Game. The taxonomy scheme has been updated to agree with the latest edition of Mammal Species of the World. were assessed for Anaplasma phagocytophilum Anaplasma phagocytophilum (formerly Ehrlichia phagocytophila) is a gram-negative bacterium that is fairly unique in its trophism to neutrophils. It causes Human granulocytic anaplasmosis. from 2006 through 2008. Odds ratios were >1 for 4 sciurids species and dusky-footed woodrats. High seroprevalence seroprevalence Immunology The proportion of a population that is seropositive–ie, has been exposed to a particular pathogen or immunogen; the seropositivity of a population is calculated as the number of individuals who produce a particular antibody divided was observed in northern sites. Ten tick species were identified. Heavily infested in·fest tr.v. in·fest·ed, in·fest·ing, in·fests 1. To inhabit or overrun in numbers or quantities large enough to be harmful, threatening, or obnoxious: rodent species included meadow voles, woodrats, deer mice deer mice Peromyscus maniculatus Public health The murine vector for Hantavirus. See Hantavirus. , and redwood chipmunks. ********** Anaplasma phagocytophilum is a tick-transmitted pathogen that causes granulocytic granulocytic pertaining to granulocytes. granulocytic leukemia see myelocytic leukemia. granulocytic sarcoma extramedullary growth of multiple, focal granulocytic neoplasm. They may be neutrophilic or eosinophilic. anaplasmosis in humans, horses, and dogs (1-3). A. phagocytophilum is maintained in rodent-Ixodes spp. tick cycles, including the western blacklegged tick (Indopacetus pacificus) in the western United States Noun 1. western United States - the region of the United States lying to the west of the Mississippi River West Santa Fe Trail - a trail that extends from Missouri to New Mexico; an important route for settlers moving west in the 19th century (4). Transovarial transmission Transovarial transmission occurs in certain arthropod vectors as they transmit disease-causing bacteria from parent arthropod to offspring arthropod. For instance, Rickettsia rickettsii does not occur, and I. pacificus feeds only 1 time per stage, so infection must be acquired by a juvenile tick feeding on an infected mammal. Suggested reservoirs in the West include the dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma fuscipes Noun 1. Neotoma fuscipes - host to Lyme disease tick (Ixodes pacificus) in northern California dusky-footed woodrat genus Neotoma, Neotoma - packrats ), for which chronic infection has been observed, and the western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus), which are frequently infected in nature (5,6). The northern coast range and Sierra Nevada foothills of California The foothills of California are groups of foothills that are located along and around San Gabriel Valley in Los Angeles County, California. They roughly follow the path of Interstate 210, giving it the name "Foothill Freeway". (4,7), where abundant rodents include deer mice (Peromyscus spp.), woodrats, and chipmunks (Tamias spp.), have moderate to high levels of granulocytic anaplasmosis. We sought to evaluate granulocytic anaplasmosis exposure and infection and describe the Ixodes spp. tick fauna in small mammals from central and northern coastal California. The Study Small mammals were caught in live traps (HB Sherman, Tallahassee, FL, USA, and Tomahawk tomahawk [from an Algonquian dialect of Virginia], hatchet generally used by Native North Americans as a hand weapon and as a missile. The earliest tomahawks were made of stone, with one edge or two edges sharpened (sometimes the stone was globe shaped). Live Trap, Tomahawk, WI, USA) at 9 sites or collected as carcasses on roads (online Technical Appendix, available from www. cdc.gov/EID/content/14/7/l147-Techapp.pdf) from 2006 to 2008. Traps were set at locations of observed active rodent use or dens and baited with peanut butter and oats oats, cereal plants of the genus Avena of the family Gramineae (grass family). Most species are annuals of moist temperate regions. The early history of oats is obscure, but domestication is considered to be recent compared to that of the other or corn, oats, and barley. Rodents were anesthetized a·nes·the·tize also a·naes·the·tize tr.v. a·nes·the·tized, a·nes·the·tiz·ing, a·nes·the·tiz·es To induce anesthesia in. a·nes with ketamine ketamine /keta·mine/ (ke´tah-men) a rapid-acting general anesthetic, used as the hydrochloride salt. ke·ta·mine n. and xylazine delivered subcutaneously, examined for ectoparasites, and bled by retro-orbital abrasion or femoral femoral /fem·o·ral/ (fem´or-al) pertaining to the femur or to the thigh. fem·o·ral adj. Of or relating to the femur or thigh. venipuncture venipuncture /veni·punc·ture/ (ven?i-pungk´chur) surgical puncture of a vein. ve·ni·punc·ture or ve·ne·punc·ture n. . The blood was anticoagulated with EDTA EDTA: see chelating agents. . Shrew shrew, common name for the small, insectivorous mammals of the family Soricidae, related to the moles. Shrews include the smallest mammals; the smallest shrews are under 2 in. (5.1 cm) long, excluding the tail, and the largest are about 6 in. (15 cm) long. (Sorex spp.) carcasses were retrieved when found in traps, kept cold, and then sampled in the laboratory. Live shrews were examined for ticks but released without further processing. All carcasses were identified to species, age, and sex; examined for ectoparasites; and then dissected for coagulated co·ag·u·late v. co·ag·u·lat·ed, co·ag·u·lat·ing, co·ag·u·lates v.tr. To cause transformation of (a liquid or sol, for example) into or as if into a soft, semisolid, or solid mass. v.intr. heart blood and spleen. Ectoparasites were preserved in 70% ethanol for identification. Data were included for animals from 3 previous studies (5,8,9). Plasma anti-A, phagocytophilum immunoglobulin G immunoglobulin G n. Abbr. IgG The most abundant class of antibodies found in blood serum and lymph and active against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and foreign particles. Immunoglobulin G antibodies trigger action of the complement system. (Ig) was assayed by an indirect immunofluorescent immunofluorescent having the characteristic of immunofluorescence. immunofluorescent antibody test see fluorescence microscopy. immunofluorescent microscopy see fluorescence microscopy. antibody assay (3), by using A. phagocytophilum-infected HL-60 cells as substrate and fluorescein fluorescein /flu·o·res·ce·in/ (fldbobr-res´en) a fluorescing dye; its sodium salt is used as a tracer in retinal angiography and as a diagnostic aid for revealing corneal trauma and fitting contact lenses. isothiocyanate-labeled goat anti-rat heavy and light chain IgG (Kirkegaard and Perry, Gaithersburg, MD, USA). This assay does not distinguish exposure to A. phagocytophilum from A. platys platys see platyfishes. , but the PCR PCR polymerase chain reaction. PCR abbr. polymerase chain reaction Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was specific for A. phagocytophilum. PCR was performed for all fying (Glaucomys sabrinus), Douglas (Tamiasciuris douglasii), and gray squirrels; all chipmunks from Santa Cruz and Marin Counties; a random subset of chipmunks from Humboldt Redwoods State Park Humboldt Redwoods State Park is located 30 miles (50 km) south of Eureka, California in southern Humboldt County, within northern California. Established by the Save-the-Redwoods League in 1921 with the dedication of the Raynal Bolling Memorial Grove, it has grown to become the and Hendy Woods State Park Hendy Woods State Park is a state park located in Mendocino County, California. The 845-acre park contains two groves of old growth Coast Redwood: Big Hendy (80 acres) and Little Hendy (20 acres). The Navarro River runs through the length of the park. ; and a random subset of individual mammals of other species. DNA DNA: see nucleic acid. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid One of two types of nucleic acid (the other is RNA); a complex organic compound found in all living cells and many viruses. It is the chemical substance of genes. was extracted from whole blood by using a kit (DNeasy Tissue kit, QIAGEN, Valencia, CA, USA), and real-time PCR was performed as described previously (5). Data were analyzed with "R" (www.r-project.org), with a cutoff for statistical significance of p = 0.05. Differences in seroprevalence among small mammal species and between sexes were assessed by [chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. ] test. Individual small mammals' risk for A. phagocytophilum exposure and infection were assessed as a function of sex, species, and location by calculating odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). Multivariate logistic regression was performed to evaluate seropositivity Seropositivity is the presence of a certain antibody in a blood sample. A patient with seropositivity for a particular antigen or agent is termed seropositive. as a function of site, host species, and interactions to evaluate possible interaction and confounding confounding when the effects of two, or more, processes on results cannot be separated, the results are said to be confounded, a cause of bias in disease studies. confounding factor between the variables. A total of 2,121 small mammals, including 2,100 rodents, 20 shrews, and 1 lagomorph, were evaluated for exposure to and infection with A. phagocytophilum and infestation infestation /in·fes·ta·tion/ (-fes-ta´shun) parasitic attack or subsistence on the skin and/or its appendages, as by insects, mites, or ticks; sometimes used to denote parasitic invasion of the organs and tissues, as by helminths. with Ixodes spp. ticks (Table 1). The overall seroprevalence was 15.2% (95% CI 13.6-16.9). Highest values and ORs >1 occurred in dusky-footed woodrats, tree squirrels, and some chipmunk chipmunk, rodent of the family Sciuridae (squirrel family). The chipmunk of the E United States and SE Canada is of the genus Tamias. The body of the common Eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus, is about 5 to 6 in. species (Table 1; online Technical Appendix). The PCR prevalence among rodents tested was 3.8% (N = 652, 95% CI 2.9-5.3); highest values were reported in tree squirrels and some chipmunk species (Table 1). Although deer mice have been reported to be exposed to A. phagocytophilum (10,11), we found little evidence of this in our study. Woodrats at northern sites tended to be infected, while sciurids (excluding ground squirrels) showed high rates of exposure at multiple sites, consistent with previous reports (5). A total of 60% of eastern gray squirrels from Connecticut were seropositive seropositive /se·ro·pos·i·tive/ (-poz´i-tiv) showing positive results on serological examination; showing a high level of antibody. se·ro·pos·i·tive adj. with reservoir competence documented by producing PCR-positive ticks after feeding on infected squirrels (12). A PCR-positive eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus Tamias striatus see chipmunk. ) was reported from Minnesota (13). Location was an important determinant of exposure to infection, with high seroprevalence in the Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation and Hendy Woods State Park (Table 2). ORs significantly <1 were observed for Samuel P. Taylor State Park Samuel P. Taylor State Park is a state park located in Marin County, California. It contains approximately 2,700 acres (11 km²) of redwood and grassland. History and the Morro Bay area, and 5 sites in the far northern coast range and Quincy in the Sierra Nevada had ORs >1 (online Technical Appendix). Statistical analysis failed to document a significant interaction between site and host species, but confounding was apparent, with overrepresentation of gray squirrels and woodrats in some high prevalence sites (online Technical Appendix). PCR prevalence was high at Sutter Buttes State Park and Siskiyou County (both with low sample size) and Big Basin State Park and Hendy Woods State Park, each [approximately equal to]12% (Table 2). Results are consistent with prior reports for horses and dogs (4). Previous spatial analysis documented increased A. phagocytophilum risk in redwood, montane mon·tane adj. Of, growing in, or inhabiting mountain areas. [Latin mont  nus, from m hardwood, and blue oak/foothill pine habitats (14). In our
dataset, obvious habitat differences would not account for differences
in disease exposure, given the presence of live oak, tanoak, redwood,
and Douglas fir at many sites. Further ecologic studies to identify
differing ecologic factors among these sites would be useful.
Tick species observed in our study sites include possible enzootic en·zo·ot·ic adj. Prevalent among or restricted to animals of a specific geographic area. Used of a disease. n. An enzootic disease. enzootic peculiar to or present constantly in a location. See also endemic. vectors and several human-biting species, including I. pacificus and I. angustus (online Technical Appendix). Host species from which relatively large collections were obtained included meadow voles, woodrats, deer mice, tree squirrels, and redwood chipmunks (T. ochrogenys). Tick diversity was highest on redwood chipmunks and in more northerly sites (online Technical Appendix). L angustus, primarily a nidicolous nidicolous said of a bird that does not leave the nest for a long time after it is hatched. tick of rodents but occasionally bites humans and is a competent vector for Borrelia burgdorferi Borrelia burg·dor·fe·ri n. A spirochete causing Lyme disease in humans. Borrelia burgdorferi The spirochete agent of Lyme disease, which contains several outer membrane proteins and a highly immunogenic flagellar sensu stricto (15), occurred on most rodent species. I. spinipalpis, which occurred on woodrats, deer mice, squirrels, and chipmunks, functions as a primary vector for B. bissettii in a woodrat enzootic cycle (16), and Neotoma mexicana and I. spinipalpis have an enzootic cycle in Colorado for A. phagocytophilum. Conclusions We show that a strong distinction can be made in possible reservoir capacity among rodent species, with many, such as deer mice and voles, only contributing to the ecology of granulocytic anaplasmosis through their support of ticks but not A. phagocytophilum infection. Others, including tree squirrels and woodrats, are frequently infected, in addition to supporting ticks. Considerable similarities exist between the ecology of A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi in the West, although the large diversity of genospecies that exists for B. burgdorferi has not been reported for A. phagocytophilum. These data provide a starting point for future work to clarify the reservoir competence of small mammals for A. phagocytophilum and to determine how ecologic interactions among small mammals, other vertebrate hosts, multiple possible vectors, and both B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum could affect the enzootic persistence of these pathogens and risk to humans and animals. DOI (Digital Object Identifier) A method of applying a persistent name to documents, publications and other resources on the Internet rather than using a URL, which can change over time. : 10.3201/eid1407.071599 Acknowledgments We thank Niki Drazenovich, Elizabeth Holmes, Bernadette Clueit, Michael Adjemian, Jamie Bettaso, Greta Wengert, and Edwin Saada for field and laboratory assistance; and Patrick Foley for suggestions for analysis. Personnel at each of the study sites (Hoopa Valley Indian Tribe INDIAN TRIBE. A separate and distinct community or body of the aboriginal Indian race of men found in the United States. 2. Such a tribe, situated within the boundaries of a state, and exercising the powers of government and, sovereignty, under the national , UC Reserve System, California State Parks This is a list of state parks and reserves in the California state park system. Jump to: External links A : Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
Financial support was provided by the UC Davis Center for Vectorborne Diseases and the Committee on Research. Dr Foley is a disease ecologist at the University of California, Davis The University of California, Davis, commonly known as UC Davis, is one of the ten campuses of the University of California, and was established as the University Farm in 1905. , Department of Medicine and Epidemiology. She is also a veterinarian veterinarian /vet·er·i·nar·i·an/ (vet?er-i-nar´e-an) a person trained and authorized to practice veterinary medicine and surgery; a doctor of veterinary medicine. vet·er·i·nar·i·an n. . Her major research focus is the ecology of tick-borne diseases. References (1.) Greig B, Asanovich KM, Armstrong PJ, Dumler JS. Geographic, clinical, serologic se·rol·o·gy n. pl. se·rol·o·gies 1. The science that deals with the properties and reactions of serums, especially blood serum. 2. , and molecular evidence of granulocytic ehrlichiosis, a likely zoonotic disease, in Minnesota and Wisconsin dogs. J Clin Microbiol. 1996;34:44-8. (2.) Madigan JE. Equine ehrlichiosis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract. 1993;9:423-8. (3.) Dumler JS, Asanovich KM, Bakken JS, Richter P, Kimsey R, Madigan JE. Serologic cross-reactions among Ehrlichia equi, Ehrlichia phagocytophila, and human granulocytic ehrlichia. J Clin Microbiol. 1995;33:1098-103. (4.) Foley JE, Foley P, Brown RN, Lane RS, Dumler JS, Madigan JE. Ecology of granulocytic ehrlichiosis and Lyme disease Lyme disease, a nonfatal bacterial infection that causes symptoms ranging from fever and headache to a painful swelling of the joints. The first American case of Lyme's characteristic rash was documented in 1970 and the disease was first identified in a cluster at in the western United States.. J Vector Ecol. 2004;29:41-50. (5.) Nieto NC, Foley J. Evaluation of squirrels as ecologically significant hosts for Anaplasma phagocytophilum in California. J Med Entomol. In press. (6.) Foley JE, Kramer VL, Weber D. Experimental ehrlichiosis in dusky footed woodrats (Neotoma fuscipes). J Wildl Dis. 2002;38:194-8. (7.) California Department of Health Service. Vector-borne diseases in California. 2004 annual report. Sacramento (CA): The Department; 2006. (8.) Foley J, Clueit S, Brown RN. Differential exposure to Anaplasma phagocytophilum in rodent species in northern California. Vector Borne Zoonotic Zoonotic A disease which can be spread from animals to humans. Mentioned in: Zoonosis Dis. 2008;8:49-55. DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2007.0175 (9.) Nieto NC, Foley P, Calder L, Dabritz H, Adjemian J, Conrad PA, et al. Ectoparasite ec·to·par·a·site n. A parasite that lives on the surface or exterior of the host organism, such as an ectophyte or an ectozoon. ec diversity and exposure to vector-borne disease agents in wild rodents in central coastal California. J Med Entomol. 2007;44:328-35. DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585 (2007)44[328:EDAETV]2.0.CO;2 (10.) Zeidner NS, Burkot TR, Massung R, Nicholson WL, Dolan MC, Rutherford JS, et al. Transmission of the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis human granulocytic ehrlichiosis: see ehrlichiosis. by Ixodes spinipalpis ticks: evidence of an enzootic cycle of dual infection with Borrelia burgdorferi in Northern Colorado. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:616-9. DOI: 10.1086/315715 (11.) Nicholson WL, Muir S, Sumner JW, Childs JE. Serologic evidence of infection with Ehrlichia spp. in wild rodents (Muridae: Sigmodontinae) in the United States. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36:695-700. (12.) Levin ML, Nicholson WL, Massung RE Sumner JW, Fish D. Comparison of the reservoir competence of medium-sized mammals and Peromyscus leucopus Peromyscus leucopus deermouse; called also white-footed mouse. for Anaplasma phagocvtophilum in Connecticut. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2002;2:125-36. DOI: 10.1089/15303660260613693 (13.) Walls JJ, Greig B, Neitzel D, Dumler J. Natural infection of small mammal species in Minnesota with the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis. J Clin Microbiol. 1997;35:853-5. (14.) Foley JE, Queen E, Sacks B, Foley P. GIS-facilitated spatial epidemiology of tick-borne diseases in coyotes (Canis latrans) in northern and coastal California. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2005;28:197-212. DOI: 10.1016/j.cimid.2005.01.006 (15.) Peavey CA, Lane RS, Damrow T. Vector competence of Ixodes angustus (Acari: Ixodidae) for Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto. Exp Appl Acarol. 2000;24:77-84. DOI: 10.1023/A:1006331311070 (16.) Brown RN, Peot MA, Lane RS. Sylvatic sylvatic /syl·vat·ic/ (sil-vat´ik) sylvan; pertaining to, located in, or living in the woods. sylvatic found in the woods; occurring in animals of the forest. maintenance of Borrelia burgdorferi (Spirochaetales) in Northern California: untangling the web of transmission. J Med Entomol. 2006;43:743-51. DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[743:SMOBBS]2.0.CO;2 Address for correspondence: Janet E. Foley, Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA; email: jefoley@ucdavis.edu Janet E. Foley, * Nathan C. Nieto, * Jennifer Adjemian, * Haydee Dabritz, ([dagger]) and Richard N. Brown ([double dagger]) * University of California, Davis, California, USA; ([dagger]) California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA; and ([double dagger]) Humboldt State University Not to be confused with Humboldt University of Berlin. Humboldt State University (HSU) is the northernmost campus of the California State University system, located in Arcata, California. , Arcata, California, USA
Table 1. Seroprevalence and PCR prevalence of Anaplasma
phagocytophilum among small mammal species, northern and
central coastal California *
A. phagocytophilum IFA
Mammal species Seropositive Seroprevalence
Clethrionomys californicus 1 12.50
Glaucomys sabrinus 2 14.29
Mus musculus 0 0.00
Microtus californicus 2 5.88
Neotoma cinerea 0 0.00
N. fuscipes 167 50.15
N. macrotis 2 3.03
All Neotoma 169 42.25
Peromyscus boylii 3 8.82
P. californicus 2 0.67
P. maniculatus 18 3.46
P. truei 1 2.56
Peromyscus spp. 0 0.00
All Peromyscus 24 2.68
Rattus rattus 0 0.00
Reithrodontomys megalotis 0 0.00
Spermophilus beecheyi 0 0.00
S.lateralis 2 22.22
Sciurus carolinensis 11 57.89
S. griseus 34 70.83
S. niger 1 100.00
All Sciurus 46 47.83
Sorex spp. 0 0.00
Sylvilagus bachmani 0 0.00
Tamias amoenus 6 6.82
T. merriami 0 0.00
T. minimus 0 0.00
T. senex 5 4.81
T. speciosus 4 33.33
T. sonomae 1 14.29
T. ochrogenys 30 27.52
Tamias spp. 2 8.33
All Tamias 48 13.45
Tamiasciurus douglasii 6 40
Total 300 15.24
A. phagocytophilum A. phagocytophilum
IFA msp2 PCR
PCR
Mammal species 95% CI positive
Clethrionomys californicus 0.6-53.3 0
Glaucomys sabrinus 2.5-43.9 1
Mus musculus 0-25.3 0
Microtus californicus 1.0-21.1 0
Neotoma cinerea 0-94.5 0
N. fuscipes 44.7-55.6 8
N. macrotis 5.3-11.5 1
All Neotoma 37.4-47.3 9
Peromyscus boylii 2.3-24.8 1
P. californicus 0.1-2.7 0
P. maniculatus 2.1-5.5 0
P. truei 0.1-15.1 NT
Peromyscus spp. 0-53.7 NT
All Peromyscus 1.8-4.0 1
Rattus rattus 0-37 0
Reithrodontomys megalotis 0-17.2 1
Spermophilus beecheyi 0-4.2 0
S.lateralis 3.9-59.9 NT
Sciurus carolinensis 34.0-78.9 3
S. griseus 55.7-82.6 6
S. niger 55.0-100.0 0
All Sciurus 33.1-62.9 9
Sorex spp. 0-37.0 0
Sylvilagus bachmani 0-94.5 NT
Tamias amoenus 2.8-14.8 NT
T. merriami 0-48.3 0
T. minimus 0-4.9 NT
T. senex 1.8-11.4 NT
T. speciosus 11.3-64.6 NT
T. sonomae 0.7-58.0 2
T. ochrogenys 19.6-37.0 2
Tamias spp. 1.5-28.5 NT
All Tamias 10.2-17.5 4
Tamiasciurus douglasii 17.5-67.1 0
Total 13.7-16.9 33
A. phagocytophilum
msp2 PCR
PCR
Mammal species prevalence 95% CI
Clethrionomys californicus 0 0-53.7
Glaucomys sabrinus 16.70 0.8-63.5
Mus musculus 0 0-34.4
Microtus californicus 0 0-17.8
Neotoma cinerea 0 0-94.5
N. fuscipes 4.30 2.0-8.6
N. macrotis 1.80 0.09-10.6
All Neotoma 3.70 1.8-7.1
Peromyscus boylii 4.00 0.2-22.3
P. californicus 0 0-3.8
P. maniculatus 0 0-6.6
P. truei
Peromyscus spp.
All Peromyscus 0.45 0.02-2.9
Rattus rattus 0 0-37.1
Reithrodontomys megalotis 6.30 0.3-32.3
Spermophilus beecheyi 0 0-20.0
S.lateralis
Sciurus carolinensis 18.80 5.0-46.3
S. griseus 15.80 6.6-31.9
S. niger 0 0-94.5
All Sciurus 16.40 8.2-29.3
Sorex spp. 0 0-94.5
Sylvilagus bachmani
Tamias amoenus
T. merriami 0 0-40.2
T. minimus
T. senex
T. speciosus
T. sonomae 50.00 15.0-85.0
T. ochrogenys 6.90 1.2-24.2
Tamias spp.
All Tamias 34.00 3.2-24.1
Tamiasciurus douglasii 0 0-60.4
Total 3.80 2.9-5.3
* IFA, immunofluorescence assay; CI, confidence interval;
NT, not tested.
Table 2. Regional seroprevelance and PCR prevalence rates for
exposure to Anaplasma phagocytophilum in small mammals in
various sites, northern and central California *
A. phagocytophilum IFA
Site Seropositive Seroprevalence
Big Basin State Park 16 6.30
Humboldt Redwoods State Park 24 16.90
Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 173 36.19
Hendy Woods State Park 43 22.51
King Range National 1 3.45
Conservation Area
Mendocino County (roadside 0 0.00
only)
Morro Bay regional communities 5 1.23
Placerville City region (roadside 1 1.00
only)
Quincy City region (roadside 2 50.00
only)
Sutter Buttes State Park 3 7.50
Sagehen Research Station 17 7.69
Siskiyou County (roadside only) 3 1.00
Sonoma 1 1.00
Samuel P. Taylor State Park 3 1.75
Trinity County (roadside only) 2 40.00
Sacramento River Valley 3 1.00
(roadside only)
Willow Creek Town (roadside 3 0.30
only)
Yolo County 1 6.67
A. phagocy-
A. phagocytophilum tophilum msp2
IFA PCR
PCR
Site 95% CI positive
Big Basin State Park 3.76-10.22 5
Humboldt Redwoods State Park 11.33-24.31 2
Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 31.91-40.70 6
Hendy Woods State Park 16.93-29.22 5
King Range National 0.18-19.63 0
Conservation Area
Mendocino County (roadside 0.00-94.53 0
only)
Morro Bay regional communities 0.45-3.01 2
Placerville City region (roadside 5.46-1.00 1
only)
Quincy City region (roadside 15.00-84.99 0
only)
Sutter Buttes State Park 1.96-21.48 1
Sagehen Research Station 4.68-12.24 0
Siskiyou County (roadside only) 30.99-1.00 1
Sonoma 5.46-1.00 0
Samuel P. Taylor State Park 0.42-5.45 2
Trinity County (roadside only) 7.26-82.96 0
Sacramento River Valley 30.99-1.00 0
(roadside only)
Willow Creek Town (roadside 8.09-64.63 0
only)
Yolo County 0.35-33.97 0
A. phagocytophilum msp2 PCR
PCR
Site prevalence 95% CI
Big Basin State Park 12.20 4.58-27.00
Humboldt Redwoods State Park 6.06 1.06-21.62
Hoopa Valley Indian Reservation 4.14 1.69-9.18
Hendy Woods State Park 12.19 4.58-27.00
King Range National 0.00 0.00-80.21
Conservation Area
Mendocino County (roadside 0.00 0.00-94.54
only)
Morro Bay regional communities 0.67 0.12-2.65
Placerville City region (roadside 1.00 5.46-1.00
only)
Quincy City region (roadside 0.00 0.00-60.42
only)
Sutter Buttes State Park 50.00 9.45-90.55
Sagehen Research Station 0.00 0.00-60.42
Siskiyou County (roadside only) 33.33 1.76-87.47
Sonoma 0.00 0.00-94.54
Samuel P. Taylor State Park 4.26 0.74-15.73
Trinity County (roadside only) 0.00 0.00-53.71
Sacramento River Valley 0.00 0.00-69.00
(roadside only)
Willow Creek Town (roadside 0.00 0.00-60.42
only)
Yolo County 0.00 0.00-25.35
* IFA, immunofluorescence assay; CI, confidence interval.
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